Chapter 4
Project Management
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Project management
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Organising, planning and scheduling software projects
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Objectives
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To introduce software project management and to describe its distinctive characteristics To discuss project planning and the planning process To show how graphical schedule representations are used by project management To discuss the notion of risks and the risk management process
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Topics covered
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Management activities Project planning Project scheduling Risk management
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Software project management
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Concerned with activities involved in ensuring that software is delivered on time and on schedule and in accordance with the requirements of the organisations developing and procuring the software Project management is needed because software development is always subject to budget and schedule constraints that are set by the organisation developing the software
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Software management distinctions
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The product is intangible The product is uniquely flexible Software engineering is not recognized as an engineering discipline with the sane status as mechanical, electrical engineering, etc. The software development process is not standardised Many software projects are 'oneoff' projects
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Management activities
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Proposal writing Project planning and scheduling Project costing Project monitoring and reviews Personnel selection and evaluation Report writing and presentations
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Management commonalities
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These activities are not peculiar to software management Many techniques of engineering project management are equally applicable to software project management Technically complex engineering systems tend to suffer from the same problems as software systems
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Project staffing
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May not be possible to appoint the ideal people to work on a project
Project budget may not allow for the use of highlypaid staff Staff with the appropriate experience may not be available An organisation may wish to develop employee skills on a software project
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Managers have to work within these constraints especially when (as is currently the case) there is an international shortage of skilled IT staff
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Project planning
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Probably the most timeconsuming project management activity Continuous activity from initial concept through to system delivery. Plans must be regularly revised as new information becomes available Various different types of plan may be developed to support the main software project plan that is concerned with schedule and budget
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Types of project plan
Plan Qualit y plan De s cription Des cribes t he qualit y p rocedures and s t an dards t hat will be u s ed in a p ro ject . Validat ion p lan Des cribes t h e appro ach, res ources and s chedule us ed for s ys t em validat ion. Con figurat ion Des cribes t he config urat io n m anagem ent m an ag em en t plan procedures and s t ru ct ures t o be us ed . Maint enance plan Pred ict s t he m aint enance requirem ent s of t h e s ys t em , m aint enance cos t s and effort requ ired . St aff d evelopm ent p lan.Des cribes how t he s kills an d experience o f t h e project t eam m em bers will be develo ped .
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Project planning process
Establish the project constraints Make initial assessments of the project parameters Define project milestones and deliverables while project has not been completed or cancelled loop Draw up project schedule Initiate activities according to schedule Wait ( for a while ) Review project progress Revise estimates of project parameters Update the project schedule Re-negotiate project constraints and deliverables if ( problems arise ) then Initiate technical review and possible revision end if end loop
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Project plan structure
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Introduction Project organisation Risk analysis Hardware and software resource requirements Work breakdown Project schedule Monitoring and reporting mechanisms
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Activity organization
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Activities in a project should be organised to produce tangible outputs for management to judge progress Milestones are the endpoint of a process activity Deliverables are project results delivered to customers The waterfall process allows for the straightforward definition of progress milestones
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Milestones in the RE process
ACTIVITIES Feasibility study Requir ements analysis Prototype development Design study Requirements specification
Feasibility report
Requir ements definition
Evaluation report MILESTONES
Architectural design
Requirements specification
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Project scheduling
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Split project into tasks and estimate time and resources required to complete each task Organize tasks concurrently to make optimal use of workforce Minimize task dependencies to avoid delays caused by one task waiting for another to complete Dependent on project managers intuition and experience
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The project scheduling process
Identify activities
Identify activity dependencies
Estimate resources for activities
Allocate people to activities
Create project charts
Software requirements
Activity charts and bar charts
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Scheduling problems
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Estimating the difficulty of problems and hence the cost of developing a solution is hard Productivity is not proportional to the number of people working on a task Adding people to a late project makes it later because of communication overheads The unexpected always happens. Always allow contingency in planning
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Bar charts and activity networks
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Graphical notations used to illustrate the project schedule Show project breakdown into tasks. Tasks should not be too small. They should take about a week or two Activity charts show task dependencies and the the critical path Bar charts show schedule against calendar time
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Task durations and dependencies
Tas k T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Duration (d ays ) 8 15 15 10 10 5 20 25 15 15 7 10
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T1 (M1) T2, T4 (M2) T1, T2 (M3) T1 (M1) T4 (M5) T3, T6 (M4) T5, T7 (M7) T9 (M6) T11 (M8 )
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Activity network
14/7/99 8 days T1 4/7/99 start 15 days T2 10 days T4 18/7/99 M5 25 days T8 19/9/99
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15 days T3 5 days T6 20 days T7 4/8/99 M4 15 days T9 25/8/99 M6 7 days T11 10 days T5 11/8/99 M7 15 days T10 5/9/99 M8 10 days T12
M1
25/7/99 M3
25/7/99 M2
Finish
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Activity timeline
4/ 7 T 4 T 1 T 2 M 1 T 7 T 3 M 5 T 8 M 3 M 2 T 6 T 5 M 4 T 9 M 7 T 10 M 6 T 1 1 M 8 T 12 F inish 1 7 18/ 7 25/ 7 1/ 1/ 8 8/ 8 15/ 8 22/ 8 29/ 8 5/ 9 12/ 9 19/ 9 S tart
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Staff allocation
4/7 Fre d T4 T8 Ja n e T1 T3 T9 An n e T2 T6 Jim Ma r y T7 T5 T10 T11 T12 11/7 18/7 25/ 1/8 8/8 15/8 22/8 29/8 5/9 12/9 19/9
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Risk management
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Risk management is concerned with identifying risks and drawing up plans to minimise their effect on a project. A risk is a probability that some adverse circumstance will occur.
Project risks affect schedule or resources Product risks affect the quality or performance of the software being developed Business risks affect the organisation developing or procuring the software
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Software risks
Ris k St aff turnover Man agement change Ris k t pe y Project Project Descriptio n Exp erienced staff will leave the project befo re it is finish ed. There will be a change of organisational man agement with different p riorities . Hard ware which is es sential for th e project will not b e d elivered on schedule. There will be a larger num ber of changes to the requirement s than ant icipat e d. Specificat ions of es sential interfaces are not available on s ch edule The size of th e sys tem has b een underest imated. CASE tools which s upport the project do not perfor m as anticip ated The underlying t echnology on which the s yst em is b ilt is s u er seded by u p new t ec hnology. A competitive product is marketed befo re the s yst em isco mplet e d.
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Hard ware unavailability
Project
Requirement s change
Project and product Project and product Project and product Product Bu sines s
Specificat ion d elays Size under es timate CASE tool underperformance Technology change
Product com petition
Bu sines s
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The risk management process
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Risk identification
Identify project, product and business risks Assess the likelihood and consequences of these risks Draw up plans to avoid or minimise the effects of the risk Monitor the risks throughout the project
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Risk analysis
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Risk planning
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Risk monitoring
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The risk management process
Risk identification
Risk analysis
Risk planning
Risk monitoring
List of potential risks
Prioritised risk list
Risk avoidance and contingency plans
Risk assessment
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Risk identification
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Technology risks People risks Organisational risks Requirements risks Estimation risks
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Risks and risk types
Risk type Technology Possible risks The database used in the system cannot process as many transactions per second as expected. Software components which should be reused contain defects which limit their functionality. It is impossible to recruit staff with the skills required. Key staff are ill and unavailable at critical times. Required training for staff is not available. The organisation is restructured so that different management are responsible for the project. Organisational financial problems force reductions in the project budget. The code generated by CASE tools is inefficient. CASE tools cannot be integrated. Changes to requirements which require major design rework are proposed. Customers fail to understand the impact of requirements changes. The time required to develop the software is underestimated. The rate of defect repair is underestimated. The size of the software is underestimated.
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People Organisational
Tools Requirements
Estimation
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Risk analysis
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Assess probability and seriousness of each risk Probability may be very low, low, moderate, high or very high Risk effects might be catastrophic, serious, tolerable or insignificant
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Risk analysis
Risk Organisational financial problems force reductions in the project budget. It is impossible to recruit staff with the skills required for the project. Key staff are ill at critical times in the project. Software components which should be reused contain defects which limit their functionality. Changes to requirements which require major design rework are proposed. The organisation is restructured so that different management are responsible for the project. The database used in the system cannot process as many transactions per second as expected. The time required to develop the software is underestimated. CASE tools cannot be integrated. Customers fail to understand the impact of requirements changes. Required training for staff is not available. The rate of defect repair is underestimated. The size of the software is underestimated. The code generated by CASE tools is inefficient. Probability Low High Moderate Moderate Moderate High Moderate High High Moderate Moderate Moderate High Moderate Effects Catastrophic Catastrophic Serious Serious Serious Serious Serious Serious Tolerable Tolerable Tolerable Tolerable Tolerable Insignificant
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Risk planning
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Consider each risk and develop a strategy to manage that risk Avoidance strategies
The probability that the risk will arise is reduced The impact of the risk on the project or product will be reduced If the risk arises, contingency plans are plans to deal with that risk
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Minimisation strategies
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Contingency plans
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Risk management strategies
Risk Organisational financial problems Recruitment problems Staff illness Defective components Requirements changes Organisational restructuring Database performance Underestimated development time Strategy Prepare a briefing document for senior management showing how the project is making a very important contribution to the goals of the business. Alert customer of potential difficulties and the possibility of delays, investigate buyingin components. Reorganise team so that there is more overlap of work and people therefore understand each other's jobs. Replace potentially defective components with boughtin components of known reliability. Derive traceability information to assess requirements change impact, maximise information hiding in the design. Prepare a briefing document for senior management showing how the project is making a very important contribution to the goals of the business. Investigate the possibility of buying a higherperformance database. Investigate buying in components, investigate use of a program generator.
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Risk monitoring
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Assess each identified risks regularly to decide whether or not it is becoming less or more probable Also assess whether the effects of the risk have changed Each key risk should be discussed at management progress meetings
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Risk factors
Risk type Technology People Organisational Tools Requirements Estimation Potential indicators Late delivery of hardware or support software, many reported technology problems Poor staff morale, poor relationships amongst team member, job availability organisational gossip, lack of action by senior management reluctance by team members to use tools, complaints about CASE tools, demands for higherpowered workstations many requirements change requests, customer complaints failure to meet agreed schedule, failure to clear reported defects
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Key points
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Good project management is essential for project success The intangible nature of software causes problems for management Managers have diverse roles but their most significant activities are planning, estimating and scheduling Planning and estimating are iterative processes which continue throughout the course of a project
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Key points
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A project milestone is a predictable state where some formal report of progress is presented to management. Risks may be project risks, product risks or business risks Risk management is concerned with identifying risks which may affect the project and planning to ensure that these risks do not develop into major threats
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