A Water Conservation Guide for Commercial, Institutional and Industrial Users, Notas de estudo de Engenharia de Produção

Baixe A Water Conservation Guide for Commercial, Institutional and Industrial Users e outras Notas de estudo em PDF para Engenharia de Produção, somente na Docsity! A Water Conservation Guide for Commercial, Institutional and Industrial Users A Water Conservation Guide for Commercial, Institutional and Industrial Users New Mexico Office of the State Engineer July 1999 Prepared for the New Mexico Office of the State Engineer by Schultz Communications, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Financial assistance provided by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. 1-800-WATER-NM 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This manual would not have been possible without the assistance of the follow - ing individuals who contributed their time, expertise, and commitment to water conservation. Tom Ash, Water Conservation Specialist, CTSI Corporation, Tustin, California James Barham, Environmental Manager, Ponderosa Pro d u c t s , A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico Jaime Beltran, Director of Plant Operations, La Vida Llena, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico Kirk Benton, Central Engineering Manager, Intel, Rio Rancho, New Mexico Randy Boles, Plant Manager, Tu s c a rora Inc., Las Cruces, New Mexico Lonnie Burke, Water Conservation Coord i n a t o r, Presbyterian Healthcare Services, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico J e ff Campbell, Environmental Coord i n a t o r, Mississippi Potash, Carlsbad, New Mexico Juan Cedeno, Senior Environmental Engineer, Ethicon Endo-Surg e r y, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico Rachel Coltin, Manager of Marketing and Communications, Tu s c a rora Inc., New Brighton, Pennsylvania Dave Colton, Facility Services Manager, Honeywell Home & Building C o n t rol, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico Patti Dominici, Tu s c a rora Inc., New Brighton, Pennsylvania Larry Griffin, Border Foods, Deming, New Mexico Michael Hazinski, Water Conservation Supervisor, East Bay Municipal Utility District, Oakland, California Randy Hisey, Golf Course Superintendent, University of New Mexico, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico Joan Justus, Manager, Hillcrest Park, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico 6 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (CONT.) Holly Kenney, General Manager, El Rey Inn, Santa Fe, New Mexico J. Douglas Kobrick, Black & Veatch, Phoenix, A r i z o n a Tom Mentzer, Swanson Russell Associates (for Rain Bird Sales), Omaha, Nebraska Rita Norton, Program Manager, Conservation Resource Management Division, Environmental Services Department, City of San Jose, San Jose, California Charles W. Pike, Program Manager, California Department of Wa t e r R e s o u rces, Sacramento, California Jane H. Ploeser, Water Conservation and Resources Division, City of Phoenix, Phoenix, A r i z o n a Erik Rems, Director of Engineering, A l b u q u e rque Marriott, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico D a rell Rogers, Water Conservation Off i c e r, Sandia National Laboratories, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico Mike Sapunor, Water Planning Specialist, Conservation Resourc e Management Division, Environmental Services Department, City of San Jose, San Jose, California Jim Scott, Laboratory Associate for the Environmental Steward s h i p O ffice, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico Jon G. Sweeten, Commercial and Industrial Program, Metropolitan Wa t e r District of Southern California, Los Angeles, California Mary Vosevich, Associate Director of Environmental Services Division, University of New Mexico, A l b u q u e rque, New Mexico 7 Section 1: Introduction SECTION 1 H e re is an overview of somekey industries and thea reas in which they use w a t e r. Office Buildings O ffice buildings, service businesses, and other commercial establish- ments typically use water for these purposes: re s t rooms and other domestic uses, cooling and heating, and landscaping. Some office com- plexes and industrial parks also have restaurant or cafeteria facilities onsite, which may be leased to a foodservice company or may be operated by the corporate tenant or building owner. Figure 1-1 Water Usage at Office Buildings Computer and Electronics Manufacturers Rinsing in the printed circuit board and electroplating industry is a nec- essary process, but it consumes l a rge quantities of water. At semi- conductor manufacturing plants, the largest quantity of water use occurs in the rinsing and cleaning of silicon wafers. Because the pro d- ucts are extremely sensitive to even m i c roscopic contaminants, water purity is vitally important. The chart below shows a typical b reakdown of water use in the com- puter and electronics industry. Many water conservation opportunities exist within this business category which will be discussed at length in later sections of this manual. Figure 1-2 Water Usage at Computer/Electronics Manufacturers Food Processors Food processing companies typi- cally use water for washing and sanitation, cooling and heating, processing food products and mis- cellaneous other functions. Typically, the opportunities for water conservation include: — Reusing water in another process (i.e., using rinse water in cooling towers) — Modifying processes to consume less water — Recycling water within a specific process (where health regulations allow) — Modifying cooling towers to recycle water Figure 1-3 Water Usage at Food Processors 10 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS TY P I C A L WATER US E BR E A K D O W N Rinsing 40% Cooling Systems 20% Fume Scrubbers 20% Water Purification 10% Landscaping 5% Restrooms/ Other 5% Washing and Sanitation 42% Cooling and Heating 19% One-Pass Cooling 14% Process 13% Domestic 3% Other/ Unaccounted 9% Restrooms/ Domestic 40% Cooling & Heating 28% Landscaping 22% Kitchen 1% Other/ Unaccounted 9% Source: City of San Jose, Environmental Services Department Source: Denver Water Source: City of San Jose, Environmental Services Department Hospitals Studies have shown that domestic uses (sinks, toilets, and showers) account for the largest percentage of water used in hospitals. Therefore, water-saving measures, such as ultra-low-flow toilets and low-flow showerheads, can have a significant impact on water use. Cooling and heating functions also provide a significant possibility for water savings, as do laundry and sterilization functions. Figure 1-4 Water Usage at Hospitals Hotels and Motels Hospitality industry businesses, primarily hotels and motels, use water for a variety of functions including laundry, preparation of food, cooling and heating, and landscaping. Ty p i c a l l y, the larg e s t p e rcentage of water use occurs in guest rooms. There f o re, many of the water conservation appro a c h e s that have been successfully used to reduce water among re s i d e n t i a l customers (such as installation of ultra-low-flush toilets, low-flow s h o w e rheads, and faucet aerators) a re recommended for hotels and motels. Figure 1-5 Water Usage at Hotels and Motels Schools School and educational facilities typically use water in these major areas: restrooms, landscaping, cooling and heating, and kitchens/cafeterias. Plumbing fix- ture standards for toilets and sink faucets should be followed, and cost/payback periods for installing ultra-low flow toilets and low-flow faucet aerators (or retrofitting existing plumbing equipment) should be among the first water conservation options considered. Figure 1-6 Water Usage at Schools 11 TYPICAL WATER USE BREAKDOWN Domestic/ Restrooms 40% Cooling & Heating 13% Sterilizers 10% Laundry 10% Kitchen 8%Landscaping 5% X-Ray Process 6% Guest Rooms 30% Kitchens 25% Laundries 20% L a n d - s c a p i n g 10% Cooling & Heating 15% Swimming Pools <1% Restrooms 45% Landscaping 25% Cooling and Heating 20% Swimming Pools <1% Kitchens 10% Misc. 8% Source: City of San Jose, Environmental Services Department Source: City of San Jose, Environmental Services Department Source: City of San Jose, Environmental Services Department 12 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS EIGHT KEYS TO SU C C E S S F U L WAT E R MA N A G E M E N T 1. Water management plans must be part of an integrated approach that examines how changes in water use will impact all other areas of operation. 2. Water conservation involves two distinct areas: technical and human. The technical side includes collecting data from water audits and installing water- e fficient fixtures and pro c e d u res. The human side involves changing behaviors and expectations about water usage and “the way things should be done.” Both areas must be addressed for a water conservation program to succeed. 3. A water conservation plan depends upon accurate data. B e f o re water- saving measures are implemented, a thorough water audit should be conducted to determine where water is being used. Then, water use can be monitored to track conservation pro g re s s . 4. A successful water conservation plan follows a logical sequence of e v e n t s . Implementation should be conducted in phases, starting with the most obvious and lowest-cost options. 5. An effective plan examines not just how much water is being used, but how it is used and by whom. When analyzing a water audit, ask the next question: “Can this process be done as well or better using less w a t e r ? ” 6. The quality of water needed should be matched with the application. Many commercial, institutional, and industrial applications do not re q u i re the use of potable water. Whenever possible, substitute recycled water used in one process for use in another. (For example, spent rinse water can often be reused in a cooling tower. ) 7. The true cost of water must be considered when conducting a cost a n a l y s i s . The true cost of water is the amount on the water bill PLUS the expense to heat, cool, treat, pump, and dispose of/discharge the w a t e r. 8. Life-cycle costing is the key to evaluating water conservation options. Don’t just calculate the initial investment. Many conservation re t rofits that appear to be prohibitively expensive are actually very cost-effective when amortized over the life of the equipment. Common Water Units 1 cubic foot (cf) = 7.48 gallons 1 ccf (commonly used by water utilities as “1 unit”) = 748 gallons 1 acre-foot = 325,851 gallons 1 million gallons per day = 3.07 acre-feet per day 15 HOW TO CREATE ASUCCESSFUL WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAM ACTION ITEMS FOR MA N A G E M E N T Once top management has committed its support to a water conserva- tion program, the following actions should be taken to turn that com- mitment into a tangible plan: 1. Establish the major goals and priorities of the water conservation program. These broad-based goals will set the tone for the specific water conservation measures which will later be identified and enacted. 2. Appoint a Water Conservation Manager who is empowered to enact a comprehensive water management plan. (See section below.) 3. Issue an organization-wide directive announcing the appointment of the Water Conservation Manager. A strong message of support for the facility’s comprehensive water conservation program should be includ- ed in this announcement. 4. Provide funding for the program. Initial funding will be needed to launch the program, and continued funding will be required to imple- ment water-saving infrastructure and process changes. 5. Emphasize the importance of the water conservation program to all employees. (See the section entitled “Getting Employees to Participate.”) 6. Recognize and publicize achievements in conservation, both large and small. Ongoing communication will reinforce management’s con- tinued support for the water conservation program. Figure 2-1 Before Conservation Figure 2-2 After Conservation Water conservation measures enacted at Intel’s plant in Rio Rancho have dramatically changed the way water flows through the facility. 16 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE WATER CO N S E RVATION MA N A G E R The Water Conservation Manager is responsible for transforming a com- mitment to water conservation into a workable plan designed to system- atically achieve an organization’s water reduction goals. The Wa t e r Conservation Manager, as empowered by top management, should have the re s o u rces available to create and implement specific water conserva- tion plans and measures. The Water Conservation Manager should: 1. Research institutional and regulatory considerations and constraints that will have an impact on water use decisions. 2. Review and evaluate the organization’s existing or previous water conservation programs. Rate previous conservation efforts and determine their overall effectiveness. Note areas that were successful and areas that were not effective. 3. Establish a budget for the water conservation program. Secure the necessary funding. (Seek outside funding, if needed.) 4. Schedule onsite water audits of all water-using equipment and processes. Oversee the auditing process, both initially and during fol- low-up and routine inspections. (See “Conduct a Water Audit” section for more information.) 5. Create the water conservation action plan. This plan should include establishing the goals of the program as well as the details for imple- menting specific water conservation measures. 6. Establish the process by which the water conservation plan will be documented and evaluated. 7. Establish and coordinate an employee communications program (in conjunction with the organization’s communications staff, if any). To realize maximum effectiveness, employees should be informed about the program and its goals. Employees should also be told how they can participate in the organization’s conservation efforts. 8. Implement the water conservation program. Install water conserva- tion equipment and begin water conservation measures. 9. Evaluate the water conservation program on a regular basis. Make any needed modifications to improve water reduction efforts. 10. Report water conservation progress to top management. Fine-tune the plan if necessary to make additional water-use reductions. The water reduction goals should be specific, measurable, and achievable. Goals should be stated in terms of gallons saved and percentage of water saved. Goals should also include the time frame for achieve- ment, the area of the facility where the water savings will be re a l i z e d , and by what means the savings will be achieved. Support each specific action item with a cost/benefit analysis where applicable. An example of a specific goal: Reduce water used to irrigate the company’s landscaping by 50% by August 1. To achieve this goal, two- t h i rds of turfgrass area will be con- verted to low-water-use xeriscape. The irrigation system will be modi- fied so that turfgrass and xeriscapes will be watered using separate irrigation zones to achieve the maximum water savings. Cost: $6,000 Annual water savings: 350,000 gallons Payback period (water savings plus landscape maintenance savings): 2 years 17 SETTING SPECIFIC WATER CONSERVATION GOALS SETTING SPECIFIC WATER CO N S E RVATION GO A L S Three Areas of Water Savings Water conservation falls into three general areas: 1. Reducing losses (i.e. fixing leaky faucets and p i p e s ) 2. Reducing use (for example, installing ultra-low-flush toilets and automatic shut-off faucets or eliminating once-through c o o l i n g ) 3. Reusing water that is c u r rently being discarded (such as using treated rinse water to irrigate landscaping) 20 WATER AUDIT CH E C K L I S T (CONT.) STEP 2: Conduct Facility Survey After the information in Step 1 has been collected, the next step is a physical survey of the facility. — Walk through the facility with production people and supervisors to understand how water is used in the various areas and production centers. — Identify and list all equipment that uses water, including water-using process equipment, cooling towers, boilers, reverse osmosis filters, rinsing tanks, kitchen equipment, faucets, toilets, showerheads, etc. — Check the water-using equipment against your inventory information. C o m p a re floor plans, plumbing drawings, and schematics with actual conditions. Note discrepancies so an accurate record of equipment can be created. — Record hours of operation for each piece of water-using process equipment. Whenever possible, verify schedules of use with operating personnel familiar with the building use and equipment. — Note devices, equipment, and/or plumbing fixtures that use water for more than one operation. (For example, some ice makers use water for making ice and for cooling.) — Calibrate all existing water meters to ensure accuracy. — Measure the amount of water used by each water-consuming fixture or piece of equipment. If permanent meters have not been installed, a temporary strap-on flow meter that uses ultrasonic waves to measure water flow can be used. In some cases, a bucket and a stop- watch can be used to measure the flow rate in gallons per minute (gpm). — Compare your water-use measurements with the manufacturers’ listed and/or recommended flow rates. Note any discrepancies. — Ask for water conservation suggestions from employees who are familiar with each water-use process. — Measure water quality, too. Knowing the quality of water as it flows through a facility may point out areas where water discharge from one process can be rerouted for use in another process. (For example, reverse osmosis reject water might be suitable for use as initial rinse water.) Water quality considerations include: chemical make-up, pH level, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS/ppm), waste content, and temperature. — Measure exterior water use, especially water used for irrigation. Obtain diagrams of all irrigation systems and inventory all sprinkler heads and water-delivery devices to determine flow rate. — Determine daily water usage for the major operating and production areas. Add these area totals to get total facility usage. Make sure that your total consumption figures match the total usage figures from your water utility, water well meters, and other water source records. A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS “Implement high-payback measures now. You don’t need a complete audit to know that fixing a leaky toilet is smart water conservation.” —Darell Rogers Water Conservation Officer Sandia National Laboratories 21 WATER AUDIT CH E C K L I S T (CONT.) STEP 3: Prepare An Audit Report After the completion of the physical inspection of the facility, in which each water-use area was carefully examined and water-use data was recorded, it is time to collate the data into a final audit report. This report will provide the “baseline” by which your water conservation efforts will be measured. Your report should include the following: — an updated set of facility diagrams, blueprints and water flow charts. — a current list of all water-using equipment with manufacturers’ recommended input/output flow rates and the actual flow rates recorded during your water audit. — a current schedule of operation for all areas and equipment, including shift scheduling, number of employees per shift, production levels, average occupancy rates, etc. — a month-by-month landscape irrigation watering schedule (landscape irrigation varies dramatically by month and by season) — a water flow chart that shows the movement of water from the time it enters the facility until it is discharged — water use figures (total facility, and broken out by operating areas and processes) — any additional water-use observations revealed by the walk-through audit and analysis — an evaluation of the total cost of water used by the entire facility (see Step 4) NOTE: Major discrepancies between your facility’s total water con- sumption figures and the sum of each water-using area may indicate underground leaks in your water delivery system. Further (more detailed) water measurement may be required to pinpoint the leak. Make sure your Plan of Action includes these leak-detection activities. WATER AUDIT CHECKLIST “We want to send the message to others that water conservation can be done with limited resources and money. We reduced our overall water consumption 82% without spending a lot of time, brainpower or money. We found we really can make a difference.” —Dave Colton Facility Services Manager Honeywell 9,000,000 7,996,000 8,000,000 7,000,000 6,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 0 2,970,000 2,477,000 2,096,800 1,418,956 GOAL 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 2000 Figure 2-4 Honeywell Annual Water Use 22 WATER AUDIT CH E C K L I S T (CONT.) STEP 4: Determine Total Water Cost The line item on your utility bill is the most obvious expense associated with water use, but it is far from the total cost of water use. Some water utilities charge a fixed fee or an environmental surc h a rge in addition to the cost for actual water used. (Water quantity is typically billed in “units” that equal one hundred cubic feet [ccf], which is equal to 748 gallons.) The cost of water can also vary. Some utilities charge diff e rent rates based upon the amount of water used. And water rates may vary seasonally. (Summer rates may be higher than winter rates, because water demand is g reater during the summer months.) In addition to the utility cost, the total cost of water also includes the cost of: — heating — cooling — energy cost of pumping water from wells or to onsite locations — pre t reating, including filtering, purifying, and softening — chemical treatment, including treating boiler feed and cooling tower water — predisposal tre a t m e n t — disposal of hazardous aqueous substances — sewer discharge, which can be based on the amount of water d i s c h a rged, total dissolved solids, and other water-quality c o n s i d e r a t i o n s Using the above information, add up the total annual cost for water and water processing. This total will be your current baseline for water cost. Calculate the cost for each unit of water consumed by dividing the total cost by the quantity of water used. It may also be advantageous to calculate the cost of water used per pro- duction unit. To calculate that figure, divide the total cost of water use for a production run by the number of units produced during that ru n . NOTE: Be sure to note monthly diff e rences in water costs, if any. Yo u r “per unit” cost of water may be higher in the summer months, which could make water conservation efforts even more cost effective during these months. A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS E mployees can have a majora ffect on the success (or fail-u re) of a water conservation p rogram. There f o re, it is imperative that they be informed about the p rogram and made an integral part of all water reduction efforts. The following steps can serve as a guideline for effectively informing employees of the program and enlisting their full support and par- ticipation on an ongoing basis. 1. Distribute a letter to all employ- ees from the leader of the org a n i z a- tion. The letter should announce the conservation program, intro d u c e the Water Conservation Manager, detail specific goals, ask for employee support, and invite feed- b a c k . 2. Establish an employee water edu- cation program. The education pro- gram should communicate infor- mation about: — the importance of and need for water conservation in New M e x i c o — the company’s water conserva- tion program, including specific g o a l s — the importance of each individ- ual’s contribution to the success of the water conservation goals of the entire org a n i z a t i o n — how specific water savings mea- s u res by individuals can reduce c o n s u m p t i o n — how specific water savings mea- s u res by employees working together as a “team” can result in major water use re d u c t i o n s — new pro c e d u res and water conservation equipment 3. Use a wide variety of methods to communicate the ongoing water conservation message. Utilizing many communications media will help to keep the message curre n t , and it will re i n f o rce the importance of the organization’s water conser- vation efforts. Consider using the following communications vehicles: — company newsletter — memos — paycheck stuff e r s — email — posters and signs — water conservation “pro g ress re p o r t s ” — new and/or revised operating guides and manuals that describe changes made to implement w a t e r-saving measure s 4. Establish a schedule for re g u l a r communication with employees about water conservation. Even with the best of intentions, the ini- tial excitement of a new pro g r a m will begin to fade unless the impor- tance of water conservation is re g u- larly communicated. Make sure that employees are kept abreast of the specific water reduction measure s that have been enacted and the water and energy saved by these m e a s u re s . 5. Get employees involved. — Establish incentive programs to encourage and re w a rd participation. (One option: offer employees a p e rcentage of the first year’s d i rect savings from water and e n e rgy conservation.) — Create a “Water Conservation Ideas Box” where employees can submit suggestions on how the o rganization can save water. — Promote slogan and poster c o n t e s t s . — Create friendly “team” competi- tion between shifts, operating a reas, divisions, and/or locations. — Reward employees with a “pizza party” or similar celebration when water goals are met. — Reward employees who spot leaks and other instances of water waste. 6. Implement effective new ideas submitted by employees. Recognize and re w a rd the contributions made by individual employees, gro u p s , and the organization as a whole. 25 EMPLOYEE ED U C AT I O N AND PA RT I C I PAT I O N EMPLOYEE EDUCATION AND PARTICIPATION N ow it’s time to begin toimplement your water con-servation plan. The best place to start is with the most obvi- ous ways to save water. Leak Detection and Repair Using the information in your water audit, locate and fix leaky faucets, faulty fittings, and bro k e n pipes and hoses. New water pipes and fittings are generally water tight when they are first installed. H o w e v e r, as pipes settle, some joints can become partially opened, which can cause leaks. Leakage tends to increase due to pipe corro- sion and deterioration of joint com- pounds. Faucets can also develop w a t e r-wasting leaks from compact- ed washers and faulty handles. A systematic program of leak detec- tion and repair can prevent future water waste. On a regular basis, t h o roughly check the following a re a s : — re s t rooms and shower facilities (in tank-type toilets, conduct dye tests to locate hidden leaks) — kitchens, dishwashing facilities and food-preparation are a s — washdown areas and janitor c l o s e t s — water fountains — water lines and water delivery d e v i c e s — process plumbing, including tank overflow valves — landscape irrigation systems NOTE: Shut off water supply and check meter readings. If the meters continue to advance, you could have underg round leaks. No-Cost Adjustments Check your water audit for any changes that can be made quickly and at no cost—and make these modifications as soon a possible. H e re are a few suggestions: — Close down re s t rooms and other potential water-using areas that a re not being used. — Recalibrate machinery and water flows to perform to the manufac- t u rers’ original specifications. — Eliminate water usage if an alternative exists. (i.e., stop hosing down side- walks, use a broom instead) — Decrease frequency of vehicle washing (unless you recycle the w a t e r ) . — Keep lines of communication open with employees and water users, and implement their suggestions whenever a p p ro p r i a t e . Installing Ti m e r s In areas where water use is period- ic, consider installing timers to automatically shut off water flow when water is not re q u i red. For example, timers could be installed on process equipment to automati- cally shut off water flow at the end of a production cycle and/or the end of a work shift. Use of Cold Wa t e r For many uses, particularly hand washing, thousands of gallons of water can be wasted every year when employees let lavatory water run while waiting for hot water. W h e re feasible: — Convert re s t room sinks to cold water only. — Post signs informing users that only cold water is available. NOTE: This would not be applicable in facilities that are re q u i red to pro- vide hot water for health re a s o n s . E fficient Landscape Wa t e r i n g Even before you begin a major re t rofit or redesign of your irriga- tion system, you can make sure that it is not wasting water. — Adjust sprinkler heads to ensure that landscape plants are being w a t e red, not pavement. — Water during the early morning hours to reduce evaporation. — Install rain/moisture sensors to turn the irrigation system off when rainfall occurs. — Manually adjust irrigation timers to eliminate unnecessary water- ing after rainfall (if system has no rain sensors). — Use hose nozzles that automati- cally shut off when not in use. 26 BEGIN WITH CE RTA I N SAV I N G S A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS LO C ATE AREAS OF MAJOR WATER SAV I N G S A fter the most obvious, low-est-cost, and “easiest”w a t e r-savings pro c e d u re s have been implemented, the next logical step is to begin to imple- ment the long-term measures that will result in the greatest water sav- ings. These measures may include replacing outdated equipment, making modifications to existing equipment, establishing more eff i- cient operational pro c e d u res, and exploring new pro c e d u res that will use significantly less water without negatively impacting pro d u c t i o n and/or service quality or quantity. Many of the long-term conservation m e a s u res re q u i re time, effort, and additional expense to implement. H o w e v e r, after the initial payback period, these measures will result in cost savings every year. As utility rates for water, energ y, and waste- water disposal increase, the annual conservation savings also incre a s e . The following approaches can be applied to water usage at virtually any site. Use these areas of focus, along with your facility’s specific water conservation plan, to begin to generate significant long-term water re d u c t i o n s . Install Meters and Controls As you discovered during your facility’s water audit, the first step in water conservation is knowing how much water is being used— and where. Meters can determine c u r rent water use and monitor any subsequent changes in consump- tion. Other controls and switches can ensure that the water supply is shut off when appropriate. — Install water meters wherever water use is not currently being m e a s u red. — Install “submeters” to measure water use by subprocesses and specific pieces of equipment. — Install interlock solenoid valves with power switches or time clocks to shut off water flow when equipment is not in use. — Install temperature control v a l v e s . — Install limit switches on tanks to eliminate over- f i l l i n g . As part of your ongoing water monitoring process, re g u l a r l y inspect all meters, controls, valves and other devices for leaks and i m p roper settings. Adjust Metered Flow Sometimes equipment is operated with higher water flows than neces- s a r y. Where input water flow to equipment is higher than manufac- t u rer specifications, reduce water flow to match manufacture r’s re c- ommendations. — Install flow restrictors to ensure a constant, specified flow t h roughout a range of water p re s s u re s . — Once metered flow has been reduced to manufacturer specifi- cations, carefully experiment with slightly reduced flow rates to further improve water eff i - c i e n c y. ( R e c o rd flow rates before and after changes to evaluate the effects of using less water on pro d u c t i o n q u a l i t y. ) Reduce Water Pressure Water pre s s u re higher than that re q u i red for specific applications will unnecessarily result in incre a s e d water consumption. — Survey the water pre s s u re at specific points and through specific lines at your site. — Contact your local water utility for assistance in measuring the water pre s s u re in pounds per s q u a re inch (psi) at key delivery and usage points at your facility. Excessive water pre s s u re will also i n c rease leakage rates. For example, an increase in water pre s s u re fro m 25 psi to 45 psi can be expected to i n c rease water use (and water lost to leakage) by 30% (AW WA, 1986). 27 LOCATE AREAS OF MAJOR WATER SAVINGS 30 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS Figure 2-5 Results of the Philips Semiconductors Water Conservation Program The dotted line represents the baseline established with the City of Albuquerque in 1995 against which Philips Semiconductors calculates its water savings. The baseline is slightly higher than 1995 metered usage because Philips’ water meter failed mid-year, a fact that the company brought to the city’s attention. 31 SECTION 3 Section 3: Water Conservation Guidelines for Indoor/Domestic Use I n commercial and institutionalsettings, indoor/domestic activi-ties can account for the larg e s t amount of water use. In office build- ings, for example, estimates for re s t room and kitchen water use range from 41% to 80% of total water use (Denver Water; Department of Water Resources, State of California, p. 40). Table 3-1 shows the perc e n t- age of water that is typically used in re s t rooms, kitchens, and laundries at selected commercial and institutional f a c i l i t i e s . Table 3-1 T h e re are three primary appro a c h e s to saving water indoors: 1. hardware solutions, such as replacing a high-flow fixture with a water- e fficient version 2. operational solutions, such as finding alternatives to using water for cleaning tasks, institut- ing a regular leak inspection and repair program, and optimizing the water efficiency of appliances 3. personnel solutions, such as educating employees to conserve water and to report leaks. C l e a r l y, not all solutions will fit every situation. Conservation actions at hospitals and convalescent homes, for instance, may be limited by health concerns. Before implementa- tion, make sure the water conserva- tion measures are consistent with health department regulations. On the other hand, some water conservation steps are mandated by law. The National Energy Policy Act of 1992 stipulates that toilets and other plumbing fixtures manu- f a c t u red after January 1, 1994 meet l o w - w a t e r-use standards (see Ta b l e 3-2). Your city or municipality may have similar, perhaps even more restrictive, re q u i rements. The City of Santa Fe, for example, re q u i re s that low-use fixtures be used in all remodeling and construction. Santa Fe also stipulates that water conser- vation signs be posted in public re s t rooms. Some of the water conservation m e a s u res discussed below are inex- pensive, yet they can have tre m e n- dous potential paybacks. For example, instituting a monthly water audit, conducting weekly leak detection surveys, or serving water only upon request in a restaurant can make significant contributions to water conserva- tion. Also, do not forget that re d u c- ing water use often leads to addi- tional cost savings in energ y, main- tenance, and consumable chemi- cals. When looking for ways to save money, be sure to ask your city or water utility if it off e r s rebate programs on plumbing fix- t u res and/or free audits. (NOTE: Use the worksheet on page 43 to compute the cost savings of pro- posed indoor/domestic water con- servation changes.) One conservation idea that is often overlooked is the installation of a p re s s u re - reducing valve on the domestic water supply line. High water pre s s u re can waste water and damage plumbing, which is why the Uniform Plumbing Code re q u i res a pre s s u re - reducing valve when the main pre s s u re exceeds 80 pounds per square inch (psi). Reducing pre s s u re further, to 60 psi, will further reduce water use. In fact, most plumbing systems per- form adequately at pre s s u res as low as 40 psi. (Arizona Municipal Wa t e r Users Association, 1997, p. 39.) 32 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS DOMESTIC WATER USE AT VARIOUS FA C I L I T I E S Facility R e s t r o o m s Kitchens L a u n d r y Hotel 30% 25% 2 0 % Restaurant 15% 60% N / A Hospital 40% 8% 1 0 % School 45% 10% N / A S o u rce: City of San Jose and large facilities utilize this latter type of toilet. T h e re are also several types of uri- nals. One common type is the siphonic jet urinal, in which an ele- vated flush tank provides enough f o rce to flush out foreign matter such as cigarette butts and gum wrappers. These urinals operate t h rough the use of a siphon device, which automatically discharges the tank’s contents when the water level in the tank reaches a certain height, thereby periodically rinsing the urinal without the need for user assistance. This makes siphonic jet urinals more sanitary than other urinals, but it also means they con- sume more water than washdown or washout urinals, which must be activated by the user. To reduce water use in commodes, consider these options: • Keep toilets in good working o rd e r. Periodically inspect and replace valves and ballcocks in tank toilets. (Flapper valves are p rone to deterioration, which can cause toilets to leak and thereby waste water.) Inspect diaphragms or other worn parts in flush valve toilets, and inspect the pin hole and rubber diaphragm in siphonic jet urinals. • Test for leaks. A federal study once estimated one in five toilets leaks, (Schultz, 1996, p. 19) and leaks may account for up to 20 p e rcent of a toilet’s water use ( Wilson, 1996, p. 8). Dye-test all tank type toilets for “silent leaks” every six months by putting a dye tablet or several drops of food coloring in the tank. Do not flush. Wait 10 minutes to see if any of the dye has leaked into the bowl. Deteriorated flapper valves a re a common source of leaks; they are inexpensive and easy to replace. Also make sure that the chain connected to the valve is not so long that it can become lodged under the valve. • Adjust flush valve. Ideally, the valve should be adjusted to use as little water as possible per flush without impeding waste removal or violating the manu- f a c t u re r’s recommendations. In general, though, valve adjust- ment is not as effective as re t ro - fitting. In urinals, existing flushometer valves can be fitted with hard w a re that reduces water consumption in the valve. • Retrofit tank-type toilets by: — installing a commercial displace- ment device in the tank, which enables the toilet to flush using about 0.75 gpf less water. One popular type of displacement device is a toilet tank dam, which consists of flexible sheets of metal or plastic that prohibit some water in the tank from flushing, saving about 0.5-1.0 gpf. NOTE: Before installing any tank device, make sure it is com- patible with the specific toilet. — replacing or amending the flush valve in the tank with an early c l o s u re device that uses less water while maintaining the original pre s s u re and flush f o rce. These devices, which must be installed by a plumber, reduce consumption by 1.0-2.0 g p f . 35 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR/DOMESTIC USE — installing a dual-flush adapter, which saves as much as 0.6-1.2 gpf by using two diff e rent flushes, one for solid waste and the other for liquids and paper. (NOTE: Signs must be posted to i n s t ruct users how to operate toilets re t rofitted with these d e v i c e s . ) • Retrofit flush valve toilets by: — installing an insert or valve replacement device to reduce flush volumes by 1.0 gpf. Some of these devices consist of plastic orifices perforated with holes in a “wheel and spoke” pattern, while others actually replace existing valve m e c h a n i s m s — replacing or amending the existing valve with an early c l o s u re device to save 1.0-2.0 gpf (see tank toilet re t rofits above) — installing a dual-flush adapter (see tank toilet re t rofits above) — adding an infrared or ultrasonic motion sensor to control flush- ing. Besides eliminating double flushing, these devices help p revent the spread of disease and are more easily used by individuals with disabilities. • Retrofit urinals by: — installing timers to shut them off when the building is not occu- pied (not necessary for wash- down or washout urinals) — installing infrared or ultrasonic sensors to control flushing (see flush valve toilets) • Replace old toilets with ultra- low-flush (ULF) toilets and urinals. Replacing 5.0 gpf toilets with ULF 1.6 gpf models may save your facility hundreds of thousands of gallons of water a y e a r. (See Table 3-4.) M a n u f a c t u rers now offer ULF toilets in the $80-$300 range, comparable in price to conven- tional models. Check with your utility or city for toilet rebate p ro g r a m s . • Install a waterless (no-flush) urinal. Made of a urine-repellant material, a waterless urinal has no handles, sensors or moving parts. A trap made of an immisci- ble liquid floating on top of a urine layer blocks sewer gases and urine odors from escaping into the bathroom. Replacing a 2.0 gpf urinal with a waterless variety in a typical office building can save 44,000 gallons per year (assuming urinal was used 200 times a day for 220 days per y e a r ) . 36 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS COMMODE USE PER CAPITA H ow many flushes aday should youassume in calculating how much water toilets flush down the drain? For the nation as a whole, 6 flushes per capita per day is a reason- able assumption (Wilson, 1996, p. 8). For work day alone, one source estimates commode use per capita as follows: Women flush toilets 4 times a day on average and run faucets for 2 minutes; men flush toilets once a day, use urinals 3 times a day and run the faucet for 1.2 minutes; janitors flush toilets and uri- nals once each and run the faucet for 30 seconds. (Source: Darell Rogers, Sandia National Laboratories) WATER SAVINGS EXAMPLES: REPLACING 5.0 GPF TOILETS WITH 1.6 GPF MODELS # of # flushes # days Water Total Toilets per day used savings annual per toilet per year per toilet gallons flush (gpf) s a v e d Restaurant 6 20 365 3.4 148,920 Manufacturer 10 20 300 3.4 204,000 O ffice Building 25 20 260 3.4 442,000 School 30 20 200 3.4 408,000 Hospital 60 6 300 3.4 367,200 Hotel 70 5 300 3.4 357,000 Source: Based on City of San Jose examples Table 3-4 Faucets To save water, try a number of easy, low-cost modifications to conventional faucets. Another option: replace old fixtures with newer faucets that control the length of time water can run and prevent water flow when not in use. • Check frequently for leaks. A faucet leaking one drip per second wastes about 36 gallons a day (U.S. General Services Administration, p 3-21). • Modify conventional faucets: — Install an aerator. Attached to the faucet head, an aerator reduces water use by adding air to the water stream. Many faucets with aerators consume as little as 1.0 gpm. This low-cost option is attrac- tive when the entire faucet does not need to be replaced. — Adjust flow valve to reduce water flow. — Add a flow restrictor, a washer- like disk that installs in the faucet head, which reduces maximum flow to 0.5-2.5 gpm. • Replace existing faucets with water-conserving faucets (especially if the existing faucets need to be replaced due to wear and tear). The following types of water-conserving faucets are available: — metered valve faucet— delivers a preset amount of water before shutting off — self-closing faucet— features a spring-loaded knob that automatically shuts off the water when the user releases the knob. — infrared and ultrasonic sensor faucets— are activated when the user’s hands are placed beneath the faucet; they shut off the water flow when the user’s hands are removed from underneath the faucet. An added advantage of this system is that it minimizes the spread of disease and helps people with disabilities. Showers Ordinary showerheads typically use from 5-7 gallons of water per minute, which means a 5-minute shower will use 25-35 gallons. To save water: • Retrofit showers with new water-conserving showerheads or aerators to reduce use to 2.5 gpm or less. • If showers are connected (i.e., not operated individually), install individual control valves on each one. 37 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR/DOMESTIC USE Faucet Upper Washer Lower Washer Aerator Frozen Yogurt and Ice Cream Machines Like ice makers, frozen yogurt and soft serve ice-cream machines can be cooled by either water or air. Water-cooled units use 2-3 gpm when they are in use, and many of these employ single-pass cooling. Consider replacing a water-cooled machine with an air-cooled model that does not require any water for condenser cooling. Alternately, retrofit the unit to be cooled by an existing chilled water system or by remote air-cooled condensers. Additional Ideas for Kitchens, Cafeterias, and Staffrooms: • Presoak utensils and dishes in a basin of water rather than in running water. • Instead of using fresh water to wash down the cooking area, use water from the steam table. • Turn off the continuous flow used to wash the drain trays of coffee/milk/soda beverage islands. Clean as needed. • Reduce the flow to dipper wells or troughs for ice cream and butter scoops. • Turn off food preparation faucets that are not in use. Consider installing foot triggers. • Use the refrigerator to thaw frozen foods instead of thawing under running water. If water- thawing is required, use a low- flow stream. Do not use running water to melt ice in bar sink strainers. • Use a water softener only where needed, such as a water heater feed line or ice cube maker. Optimize regeneration and rinse cycles for ion-exchange water softeners to minimize calcium- laden reject water or sodium- laden rinse water. Use a hard- ness sensor rather than a timer to control regeneration so that soft water will be produced only when it is needed. Check set- tings so that the flow rate and the duration of flushing cycle are correct. • Install aerators or water-saving faucets. • Install a hot water on-demand system at sinks if obtaining warm water requires employees to keep the water running for a long time. To avoid higher energy costs, choose a system that doesn’t require that a recir- culating pump run constantly. • Serve water only on request. 40 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS KITCHENS, CAFETERIAS, & STA F F R O O M S ( C O N T. ) L aundries are another high-water-use area, especially forhospitals, convalescent homes, hotels and motels, diaper services, and commercial linen ser- vices. Washer-extractors are the most common type of commercial washing machine, varying in size from 25 to 400 dry pounds per load. These machines typically consume about 2.5-3.5 gallons of fresh water per dry pound of laun- dry. There is no internal recycling; fresh water is added for each wash and rinse cycle. To reduce water consumption: • Wash full loads only. • Consult your laundry chemical supplier for laundry methods that require fewer wash and rinse steps. Changing chemicals or your washing program can eliminate several fills of the washer-extractor for wash or rinse steps. Provide laundry scales to weigh loads if none are available. • Install a rinse water reclamation system. These computerized systems divert rinse water to a storage tank for reuse as wash water. Expect water savings of 25 percent or more. • Reduce water use by up to 50 percent by installing a reclama- tion system that recycles both rinse water and wash water. Wastewater from the laundry process is treated and then reused in initial wash cycles. • Replace your conventional washer-extractor with a continu- ous batch-washer (“tunnel washer”). Since batch-washers reuse rinse water from all but the first rinse, this type of washer uses only 1.0-2.0 gallons of water per dry pound of laundry— a 60 percent savings. Additional benefits include energy savings due to the recov- ery of heat from the load itself during rinse cycles, reduced labor costs because the system is automated, and, in some cases, reduced chemical usage. The disadvantages are high initial capital costs and the need for careful scheduling of loads to avoid having to reset equipment controls. • Install coin-operated washing machines in common rooms of rental housing. In a recent study, the Multi-housing Laundry Association, a not-for-profit trade association, found that each washer in apartments used an average of 11,797 gallons of water annually versus 3,270 gallons per apartment unit served by coin-operated machines in common laundry rooms. (From the LaundryWise Home Page, www.laundrywise.com) 41 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR INDOOR/DOMESTIC USE LA U N D R I E S The Santa Fe Lodgers Association and the City of Santa Fe provide guest room cards that encourage guests to forego daily linen changes. R eplacing a water-cooled ice-maker with an air-cooledversion or installing an ultra-low-flow toilet immediately p roduces significant and re a d i l y observable reductions in water use. But changing the way in which your facility goes about doing myriad routine operations such as cleaning and maintenance can also add up to impressive water sav- ings. Consider making the follow- ing changes and adjustments: • Think about how floors and other areas are cleaned. Is water necessary? Would brooms or wet wash rags work as well as hoses? • Find alternative cleaning meth- ods that require little or no water for washdowns. • Switch from “wet” carpet clean- ing methods, such as steam, to “dry,” powder methods. • Clean windows only when they are dirty, not on a rigid schedule. • If it is necessary to use water (e.g., grocery store meat cutting rooms, commercial kitchens, and medical facilities), employ high- pressure, low-volume sprays (which work better than low- pressure, high volume sprays). Use portable high pressure pumps where needed to reduce the amount of water used for cleaning by up to 40 percent. When cleaning with water, stick to budgeted amounts for each job. • Install spring-loaded valves or timers on all manually operated hoses. • Install an on-demand water heater near sinks and other places where warm water is needed to avoid having customers and employees run water while waiting for hot water. • Reuse reject water or process wastewater from other parts of the facility to clean areas re q u i r i n g grease removal (provided this complies with health re g u l a t i o n s ) . • Inspect steam lines and traps, all plumbing fixtures, hot and cold water lines, drinking fountains, and water-using appliances routinely in order to catch prob- lems early and to keep these devices operating optimally. • Read water meters monthly and compare to previous years to ferret out leaks. • Set up an easy procedure for employees to report leaks. Establish water conservation teams to search for water conser- vation options. Place a “Water Conservation Suggestion Box” in a conspicuous place and ask for employee suggestions. Assign an employee (or a water conser- vation team) to evaluate water conservation opportunities. • Repair leaks and malfunctions promptly, not only to save water but to show employees that their reports of leaks are taken seriously. • Shut off the water supply to equipment in areas that are not currently in use. 42 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS CLEANING & MA I N T E N A N C E “The maintenance staff needs to understand that they are an important part of the (water conser - vation) program, and that they need the proper training for the program to be successful.” —Lonnie Burke Water Conservation Coordinator, Presbyterian Healthcare Services 45 SECTION 4 Section 4: Water Conservation Guidelines for Landscaping T he natural landscapes ofNew Mexico are varied andbeautiful. From the cool northern mountains to the hot deserts of the south, New Mexico’s native plant life has one thing in common: the ability to survive on very little water. Although rainfall varies throughout the state, New Mexico averages less than 13 inch- es of annual pre c i p i t a t i o n . Most of the plants used in tradi- tional landscaping re q u i re supple- mental water to thrive in New Mexico. For example, Kentucky bluegrass is native to regions that receive in excess of 40 inches of annual precipitation. To make up the diff e rence between a plant’s water re q u i rements and the natur- al precipitation it receives, addi- tional water must be added in the form of irrigation. If your facility maintains any land- scaping, then exterior water- u s e management should be an impor- tant part of your overall water con- servation program. The following pages offer an overview of water- saving strategies for landscaping and other exterior applications. NOTE: An increasing number of municipalities in New Mexico are enacting landscape ordinances to encourage and/or re q u i re exterior water conservation. Check with your local water utility to learn whether a landscape ordinance is in effect (or is in the development stages) for your community. 46 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS A Typical “Wa t e r-thirsty” Landscape Large turf area Kentucky bluegrass or other high-water-use grass Cottonwood, ash, sycamore or other high-water-use trees Annual flowers such as marigolds, petunias and pansies Sprinkler overspray Typical supplemental water needed: 25 gallons per square foot per season The traditional Midwest-inspired landscaping is appropriate in areas which receive more than 40 inches of annual precipatation. But, in New Mexico, particularly during the hot summer months, this type of landscape re q u i res a tremendous amount of supplemental w a t e r. 47 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPING A Typical “Wa t e r-wise” Landscape Reduced turf area Buffalograss or blue grama grass Shrubs including spanish broom, apache plume and red yucca Desert willow and New Mexico olive trees Purple iceplant and artemisia groundcover Penstemons, Mexican evening primrose, gaillardia, and other flowering perennials Efficient irrigation Typical supplemental water needed: 5-10 gallons per square foot per season Southwestern landscaping respects our state’s natural, dry environment. Using the prin - ciples of xeriscaping (water-saving landscaping with native and drought-tolerant plants), a water-wise landscape can reduce supplemental irrigation by more than 50%. GET PROFESSIONAL H E L P A landscape arc h i t e c tand a landscapeinstallation firm can be invaluable re s o u rces in the design, planning, and implementation of a new, w a t e r-wise landscape for your facility. Some firms can even provide “turn-key” ser- vices that include installing a complete water- e ff i c i e n t xeriscape and training on-site maintenance personnel on the proper care of plants and the use and upkeep of the irrigation system. Water-wise landscapes use eficient drip irrigation and micro-sprayers where v e r a p p ro p r i a t e . 50 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS R e g a rdless of the type of land-scape at your facility, twoprimary guidelines of water conservation apply to landscape i r r i g a t i o n : 1. Apply water in the most eff i c i e n t means possible. 2. Apply water only where and when it is needed. This section of the manual re v i e w s the basic types of irrigation systems and water-delivery devices and o ffers ways to conserve landscape water use. Immediate Water Savings The following tips and guidelines on efficient landscape irrigation can p rovide significant and immediate water savings: — To minimize evaporation, water e a r l y. The best time to water during warm months is before 9:00 a.m. — Adjust sprinklers to water land- scape plants, not sidewalks, s t reets, and parking lots. — Adjust sprinklers and other w a t e r-delivery devices to con- centrate water at the root area of plants, not on trunks and leaves. Topical watering results in unnecessary evaporation and ru n o ff. Also make sure that sprinkler heads are set at the p roper height (as recommended by the manufacturer) to prevent them from becoming blocked by tall grass or other nearby plants. — Refrain from watering when it’s windy or raining. — Water deeply and less fre q u e n t l y instead of lightly every day. Deeper watering encourages plant roots to grow deeper, which in turn will enable plants to become more dro u g h t - tolerant because they will be able to draw moisture from a l a rger volume of soil. — Eliminate overwatering. M e a s u re moisture at root level to determine when plants need w a t e r. — If plants are being watered with a hand-held hose, attach a noz- zle or sprayhead with an auto- matic shutoff option to avoid water waste. — Stop using water to clean side- walks, driveways, parking lots, tennis courts, pool decks, and other hard s c a p e s . Modifications That Can Provide Water Savings The following maintenance, re t ro f i t , and replacement options can pro v i d e additional landscape water savings: — Select low-water-use trees, s h rubs, perennials, and gro u n d - covers instead of high-water- u s e turfgrass. — Install separate valves for turf and for other types of plants ( t rees, shrubs, groundcovers, etc.) to ensure that each type of plant material receives only the amount of water it needs. — Mow turfgrass higher—and never remove more than 1/3 of the turfgrass blade. Longer leaf surfaces promote deeper ro o t i n g and shade the plant’s root zone, thus making the turfgrass more w a t e r- e ff i c i e n t . — Don’t plant turfgrass in areas less than 10 feet wide. Small turf a reas are virtually impossible to water efficiently using sprin- klers. For these small and uneven areas, use water-wise plants and a drip irrigation system instead. — Carefully regulate when and how much water is delivered to each zone of the irrigation system. — Install an irrigation timer to schedule watering times and durations. Select a timer with a manual override feature that will enable your maintenance s t a ff to cancel a scheduled watering in the event of rain. — Adjust watering schedules to compensate for changing seasons. — Install a soil moisture sensor, called a soil tensiometer, to auto- matically test the soil moisture to determine when and how much water should be delivered. — Inspect irrigation systems re g u - l a r l y. Replace or repair broken sprinkler heads, broken pipes, and other leaky, dirty, or damaged components. — To prevent water lines from f reezing, place shut-off valves in fre e z e - p rotected sites rather than running water continuously. DESIGN & OP E R ATION OF LANDSCAPE IR R I G AT I O N SY S T E M Sprinkler Systems Sprinkler systems are the tradition- al method of irrigating turfgrass lawns. Although watering alterna- tives have been developed in re c e n t years, most notably subsurface irri- gation and turf bubblers, sprinklers a re generally recognized as the most efficient and effective method of lawn irrigation. In New Mexico, where cool-season turfgrass (i.e., Kentucky bluegrass and tall fescue) is definitely an “oasis” plant, lawns should be located where they can be the most visible and useful— such as near f ront entrances, employee bre a k a reas, and activity areas. To maximize water conservation, replace old sprinkler heads with n e w e r, water- e fficient models— and choose the right sprinkler for the job: — F i x e d - s p r a y sprinklers produce a tight, constant fan of water that is ideal for small landscape d e s i g n s . — P o p - u p models retract when not in use, so they will not be dam- aged by lawn mowers or foot t r a ffic. — Stream rotors usually feature multiple rotating streams that a re designed for medium-sized turf are a s . — Impact rotors a re typically used to irrigate large turf areas such as golf courses and athletic f i e l d s . Drip Systems Drip irrigation is the perfect method for watering most xeric (water- e ff i- cient) shrubs, perennials, and tre e s . Drip irrigation systems save water because they deliver slow, steady amounts of water directly to plant root zones. As a result, drip systems reduce water lost to evaporation, ru n o ff, and overspray. Drip emitters— Each drip emitter connects to micro-tubing and deliv- ers water to specific plants at a s l o w, consistent rate, typically fro m one-half gallon to four gallons. A drip emitter rated at “2 gph” will deliver two gallons per hour. Multi-emitter Hydrant— In some cases, multi-emitter hydrants can replace existing sprinkler heads when converting a turf landscape to xeriscape. The four or eight indepen- dent outlets in a multi-emitter hydrant can be fitted with emitters that deliver d i ff e rent amounts of water. 51 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPING Pop-up sprinkler heads Impact rotor Multi-emitter Hydrant 52 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS M i c r o - t u b i n g— The micro - t u b i n g (typically 1/4” diameter) delivers water to individual drip emitters. Pressure regulator— Most drip systems re q u i re less water pre s s u re than that of a typical sprinkler sys- tem. (A typical drip system oper- ates best at 20 pounds per square inch [psi].) A p re s s u re re g u l a t o r e n s u res even water distribution t h roughout an irrigation zone. F i l t e r— Drip systems re q u i re a built-in filter to keep particles in the water (such as sand and silt) f rom clogging the small emitters. Irrigation System Components (Common to Sprinkler and Drip S y s t e m s ) The following components are common to both sprinkler and drip irrigation systems: C o n t r o l l e r / Ti m e r— The contro l l e r (or timer) is the “brain” of the sys- tem. It regulates the water cycles to activate the control vales at the times and days you select. E l e c t ronic controllers enable you to p recisely adjust watering times, p rogram multiple cycles, and skip cycles when it rains. Va l v e s— Control valves are used to turn the water on and off . Automatic valves are wired to the c o n t roller and programmed to open and close at specific times and days. Manual valves must be opened by hand to water a specific zone. Manual Shut-off Va l v e— Most systems have a manual shut-off (also known as an “isolation valve”) that allows you to shut off the irrigation system for service or e m e rgency re p a i r s . Backflow Preventer/Anti-Siphon Va l v e— A backflow pre v e n t e r keeps irrigation system water fro m being siphoned back into potable water supplies. Backflow pre v e n- ters are re q u i red by ordinance in most municipalities. P i p e s— The water pipes are the “skeleton” of an irrigation system. They send water underg ro u n d t h roughout the landscape to the w a t e r-delivery devices (sprinklers, drip emitters, etc.). Most irrigation systems use PVC pipe or polyethyl- ene tubing. Drip Systems ( c o n t . ) M i c ro - t u b i n g C o n t ro l l e r / Ti m e r F i l t e r Va l v e s Backflow Preventer/Anti-Siphon Va l v e A s noted in Section 1 of thismanual (“Eight Keys toSuccessful Wa t e r Management,” page 12), a success- ful water conservation pro g r a m involves two distinct areas: techni- cal and human. The technical side involves hard w a re and data collec- tion. The human side involves changing behaviors and expecta- tions about water usage. In short, a “cultural change” is necessary to move from established operating and maintenance practices to new, w a t e r-conserving practices. The importance of educating your facility’s landscape and mainte- nance staff cannot be overe m p h a- sized. Maintenance workers and trades people must be informed about the technical aspects of the p rogram. They must also be con- vinced of the merits of the pro g r a m in order for it to be successful. Part of the education process must posi- tion the water conservation pro- gram as a tool to improve workers’ job effectiveness and perfor- mance—not a way to make them look bad or eliminate jobs. Introducing the Wa t e r Conservation Program B e f o re embarking upon a water conservation program—and long b e f o re installing a xeric land- scape—it is important to meet with the maintenance staff to educate them on the merits of water conser- vation. Ideally, this initial meeting should take place prior to the Landscape Audit described above. If it is not possible to meet with all maintenance personnel prior to the audit, make sure the maintenance s t a ff knows that maintenance/ landscape supervisors and man- agers played an active role in the a u d i t . S h a re with the maintenance staff the primary goals of the facility’s water conservation efforts, the changes that will be made to the landscape plant materials (re p l a c- ing turf with native and water- w i s e plants, for example), and changes that will be made to the irrigation system. Enlist their support in making the plan a quantifiable suc- cess. Elements of a Training Program Atraining program for landscape maintenance personnel will make them more effective water con- servers. A training program should i n c l u d e : — Irrigation Scheduling— Include an overview of the water re q u i rements of diff e rent species of plants, signs of plant stress due to overwatering and under watering, use of soil probes and soil cores to check soil moisture, best time of day to irrigate, and an overview of evapotranspira- tion (ET) rates. — Irrigation System Operation— Include a basic overview of the irrigation system and its compo- nents, water application tech- niques of the components, use of automatic controllers to turn water on and off, manual over- ride of controllers, and the landscape’s watering zones. — Irrigation System M a i n t e n a n c e— Cover how to spot problems in irrigation equipment and make the neces- sary repairs or replacements. Include a basic checklist for a regular walk-through inspec- tion. (See “Irrigation System Testing and Maintenance Checklist” on page 57.) — Landscape Maintenance— Cover the practices that reduce the need for irrigation water. These practices include: — proper height for turf m o w i n g — proper frequency of turf aeration and dethatching to i n c rease water re t e n t i o n — proper fertilization sched- ules to maintain plant health and drought tolerance — soil preparation and mulching practices to i n c rease water re t e n t i o n Irrigation Certification I d e a l l y, your facility’s landscape main- tenance manager should be trained in exterior water use management and be a certified Landscape A u d i t o r. Landscape Auditors are certified by the Irrigation Association. For more information about the organization and its certification classes, contact the Irrigation A s s o c i a t i o n at 8260 Willow Oaks Corporate Drive, Suite 120, Fairfax, VA22031; phone (703) 573-3551. 55 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPING TRAINING LANDSCAPE MAINTENANCE PE R S O N N E L 56 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS FIVE LANDSCAPE WATERING TIPS E V E RY MAINTENANCE PERSON SHOULD K N O W 1. If water ru n o ff is a pro b l e m , particularly in turf areas, use a two-step watering pro c e s s . Run the sprinklers for half the needed time, wait one hour, then water for the re m a i n i n g time. This approach enables the first delivery of water to be fully absorbed into the soil. 2. Inspect plants re g u l a r l y (daily if possible). Plants show signs of stress when they need w a t e r. Grass will lie flat after being walked on and will lighten in color when it needs to be watered. Shrubs, pere n- nials, and trees will often dro p leaves, droop, or lose their gloss when underwatere d . 3. Avoid overwatering, which not only wastes water but can cause lawn and plant disease. 4. Irrigate trees and shru b s longer and less fre q u e n t l y than shallow-rooted plants such as grass and flowers. 5. Remember that new plant- ings need more water than established plants. After plants become established, however, make sure irrigation water is re d u c e d . What is Evapotranspiration (ET)? Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined process of evaporation f rom the soil and water transpiration through plant surfaces. ET is mea- s u red in inches of water per day (or week, month, or year), and it changes with the weather (i.e., the hotter and drier the weather, the higher the ET). Many weather stations and municipalities now provide daily, weekly, and monthly ET figures. Use local ET figures to help determine when and how much water must be added to your landscape. Note that ET, for various types of landscape plants, is normally related to a reference ETR for a cool season grass by a coefficient (KL). Thus ET = KL x ETR. While the ETR for grass may be 0.23 inches per day (Albuquerque in July), the ET for low-water-use plants may be less than 0.12 inches per day (i.e. KL = 0.50). To determine the amount of irrigation water (IR) re q u i red, take the ET and subtract the amount of effective rainfall (Re). Then divide that amount by your irrigation system’s eff i c i e n c y : IR = ET - Re ÷ Ef Sprinkler systems should generally be designed to achieve a 70% (i.e., .70) e ff i c i e n c y, and drip systems should achieve an 85-90% eff i c i e n c y. Field tests conducted by Sternberg (1967) suggest that evaporation and drift losses may range from 17 to 22 percent of sprinkler discharge in the daytime and 11 to 16 percent at night. F or peak eff i c i e n c y, yourfacility’s irrigation systems t a ff should conduct re g u l a r inspections and make needed adjustments. Use the following checklist as a guide to routine test- ing and maintenance. M o n t h l y — Check for leaks. Inspect water lines, sprinklers, emitters, and other components. Look for wet spots in the landscape to help locate broken pipes, leaky sprinkler heads, etc. — Replace broken sprinkler heads, bubblers, micro-sprayers, and drip emitters immediately with identical or equivalent parts to e n s u re even water delivery t h roughout the irrigation zone. — Locate and clean any dirty sprinkler heads, drip emitters, clogged tubing, etc. — Use your water meter and water bills to help reveal the presence of hidden leaks. S p r i n g — Set controller for watering times and durations. (Remember to adjust the timer clock for the beginning of Daylight Savings Ti m e . ) — Replace back-up battery in c o n t ro l l e r. — Test manual shut-off/isolation v a l v e . — Check the water pre s s u re in each irrigation zone. Adjust as necessary to match the manu- f a c t u rers’ recommendations for the water-delivery devices in your irrigation system. — Check and clean filters. — Check and clean screen in sprinkler heads. Adjust pattern to eliminate water waste due to o v e r s p r a y. — Test sprinkler heads to make s u re they are delivering consis- tent amounts of water over the e n t i re are a . — Inspect all drip emitters. Make s u re emitters are applying water to the entire root zone of each p l a n t . S u m m e r — Adjust controller for watering times and durations during the hottest months. — Check and clean filters. — Inspect all drip emitters and clean if clogged. — As plants grow bigger, move drip emitters to the edge of the plant’s root ball to encourage additional root development. Late Summer — Adjust controller to shorten watering times and durations during New Mexico’s rainy s e a s o n . F a l l — Adjust controller to further shorten watering times and durations as the weather cools. — Adjust controller clock for the end of Daylight Savings Ti m e . — Test manual shutoff/isolation v a l v e . — Check and clean filters. — Inspect all drip emitters and clean or replace if necessary. Wi n t e r — Adjust controller to further shorten watering times and d u r a t i o n s . — When daytime temperatures are below 40 degrees F., discontinue automatic watering and turn on irrigation system manually as n e e d e d . 57 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPING IR R I G ATION SYSTEM TESTING & MA I N T E N A N C E CH E C K L I S T C ooling and heating pre s e n tg reat opportunities for waterconservation. Not only do cooling towers, chillers, small evap- orative coolers, boilers, and steam generators consume a great deal of w a t e r, but they frequently use water ineff i c i e n t l y. Understanding how to optimize the performance of heating and cooling equipment is essential to any industrial, commer- cial or institutional water conserva- tion plan. These guidelines are designed to save water as well as reduce energy and chemical costs. At hospitals, industrial plants, o ffice buildings, and other facilities with large cooling needs, cooling towers can be the largest single water user. Cooling towers use huge volumes of water because they are designed to remove heat by evaporation. Just as human bod- ies cool off when sweat evaporates in a breeze, a cooling tower cools a c i rculating stream of water by exposing water droplets to an air- f l o w. This causes a portion of the water to evaporate, taking heat with it. The remaining, cooled water then flows to an air condi- tioning unit or other equipment and a heat exchange occurs; the equipment is cooled and the circ u- lating water is heated. The warmed water then returns to the cooling tower to be exposed to an airflow, cooled, and the cycle begins anew. (See “Typical Cooling To w e r Operation” diagram in Figure 5-1.) Water can be lost from a cooling tower in three ways: evaporation, b l e e d - o ff, and drift. E v a p o r a t i o n . The primary purpose of a cooling tower is to take advan- tage of the heat transfer that occurs when water evaporates. When a por- tion of a circulating stream of water evaporates, it cools the water that remains. The rate of evaporation f rom a cooling tower is typically equal to approximately 1% of the rate of re c i rculating water flow for every 10 degrees F in temperature d rop that the cooling tower achieves. B l e e d - o ff or blowdown. The water that evaporates from a cooling tower is pure; left behind in the water that remains are suspended and dissolved solids. As pure water continues to evaporate each time the water passes through the cool- ing tower, the concentration of dis- solved solids increases. Ultimately, the dissolved solids must be removed in order to prevent dam- age to the system in the form of scaling, corrosion, and other pro b- lems. Bleed-off (also called blow- down) is the discharge of a portion of the circulating water to re m o v e the suspended and dissolved s o l i d s . D r i f t . Water droplets and mist car- ried out of the cooling tower by air flow is called drift. In well-main- tained towers, water loss due to drift should be very small. ( Ty p i c a l l y, drift can vary between 0.05% and 0.2% of the flow rate t h rough the tower.) Because the d roplets still contain dissolved solids, drift is considered a part of b l e e d - o ff. Water added to the system to replace water lost via evaporation, drift, and bleed-off/blowdown is called “make-up water.” There f o re , the water balance in a cooling tower system can be stated as the relationship between make-up water (M), evaporation (E), bleed- o ff (B), and drift (D): M = E + B + D Since the evaporation rate depends on how much cooling is needed and, to a lesser degree, the weather, evap- orative loss presents no viable oppor- tunity for conserving water. Instead, facilities must focus on reducing the amount of water that is discarded as b l e e d - o ff from the system. 60 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS COOLING TOWERS Water Quality and Eff i c i e n c y Conserving water in a cooling tower is largely a function of water q u a l i t y. Left uncontrolled, the qual- ity of water circulating through a cooling tower system will deterio- rate. Poor water quality—which includes water with high levels of dissolved solids—degrades the e fficiency and longevity of cooling towers due to these problems: S c a l e . When water-borne minerals such as calcium carbonate are deposited on the surfaces of the cooling tower, they form a film called scale. Scale reduces the cool- ing capacity of the tower by acting as an insulator. Excessive scale build-up can sometimes obstru c t the flow of water, resulting in high- er energy costs. Other scale-induc- ing minerals include silica, calcium sulfate, and iron oxides. C o r r o s i o n . C o r rosion of the metal surfaces of the cooling tower can be caused by a low pH (acidity) of the water due to contamination fro m air pollutants. High mineral con- centrations in the cooling water may also generate a high conduc- t i v i t y, which leads to corrosion if the water passes by and conducts a c u r rent between two diff e rent met- als. Finally, scale, dirt, and the water itself may wear away metals. B i o f o u l i n g . The warm, moist envi- ronment of a cooling tower beck- ons to algae, bacteria, slime, and fungi. These organisms can impinge or clog water flow, pro- mote scaling and corrosion, and c o r rupt the heat transfer eff i c i e n c y of the system. As the concentration of total dissolved solids increases, a portion of the circ u- lating water must be discharged as b l e e d - o ff to prevent the above condi- tions from damaging the system. C l e a r l y, the less bleed-off water re q u i red, the greater the water savings. To minimize bleed-off, facilities often rely on an outside water t reatment vendor to supply chemi- cals for use in the cooling tower’ s c i rculating water. These chemicals include scale inhibitors (e.g. o rganophosphates) and corro s i o n inhibitors (e.g., polyphosphates). Inhibitors make it possible for the water to “hold” much larger con- centrations of minerals in their dis- solved state (commonly re f e r red to as “total dissolved solids” or TDS), t h e reby postponing bleed-off until much higher mineral concentra- tions are reached. (An additional benefit of minimizing bleed-off is that treatment chemicals stay in the c i rculating water longer, thus reducing chemical cost.) 61 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR COOLING AND HEATING WATER WITH CONCENTRATED MINERAL SALTS WATER SPRAYED DOWNWARD MAKEUP WATER (“M”) TREATMENT CHEMICALS EVAPORATION (“E”) WARM WATER PROCESS HEAT SOURCE COOL WATER BACK TO PROCESS DRIFT (“D”) RECIRCULATING PUMPBLOWDOWN (“B”) (ALSO CALLED BLEED-OFF) F i g u re 5-1 Typical Cooling Tower Operation Water flowing out of a cooling tower c i rculates to equipment that needs cooling. The equipment is cooled; the water is warmed. The warm water is returned to the cooling tower where it is re - c o o l e d and the process begins again. Water Conservation Measures T h e re are several ways to impro v e the water-use efficiency of a cool- ing tower by reducing the water lost to bleed-off: — Operate bleed-off on a continuous basis, rather than by the “batch” method. Most cooling towers a re bled-off automatically when the mineral concentration, as m e a s u red by conductivity, reaches a specified level. This is usually done by the batch method, releasing large quanti- ties for a preset period of time or until the conductivity reaches a preset low level. U n f o r t u n a t e l y, this method can lead to wide fluctuations in the c o n d u c t i v i t y, which wastes w a t e r. Instead, try to operate the b l e e d - o ff on a more continuous basis, keeping the conductivity closer to the limits. Set the b l e e d - o ff timer for a shorter time, or set the low-end conduc- tivity higher, not much less than the bleed-off start level. — Install conductivity and flow meters on make-up and bleed-off l i n e s . This will allow the opera- tor to closely monitor the vol- umes of water being used and verify that the system is operat- ing at optimum parameters. Meters that display total water flow as well as current rate of flow are most useful. — Read meters regularly. Keep a log of make-up and bleed-off consumption and dissolved solid concentration, evapora- tion, cooling load and concen- tration ratio. — Add an automatic control to shut off the unit when it is not being used (i.e. at night or weekends). — Select your treatment vendor with care. Tell vendors that water conservation is a high priority and ask them to esti- mate the quantities and costs of t reatment chemicals and vol- umes of bleed-off water, as well as the expected concentration ratio. Keep in mind that some vendors may be reluctant to i m p rove water efficiency because it means the facility will p u rchase less treatment chemicals. — Adjust pH by adding sulfuric a c i d . C a refully adding a con- t rolled amount of sulfuric acid to the cooling tower water low- ers the pH and prevents scale by converting a portion of the scale-forming minerals into m o re soluble forms. This option may reduce water consumption by up to 25 percent. Make sure that workers are fully trained in the proper handling of acids. Also note that acid overdoses can severely damage a cooling system, so use a timer and add acid at points where the flow of water is well-mixed and re a s o n - ably rapid. Also be aware that lowering the pH may mean you may have to add a corrosion i n h i b i t o r. — Install sidestream filtration. Routing cooling tower water t h rough a rapid sand filter or high efficiency cartridge filter is a particularly good method for i m p roving water quality in places where airborne contami- nants and water cloudiness are common and for systems with n a r row passages susceptible to clogging. Filtration improves cooling tower efficiency and cuts down on the need for main- tenance. Sidestream filtration is particularly helpful if your cool- ing tower is subject to dusty atmospheric conditions. — Treat water with ozone. Ozone not only kills viruses and bacteria, but it may also control corrosion by oxidizing inorganics and sol- uble ions. Ozonation can i m p rove water quality without the need for additional chemi- cals. (NOTE: While ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, its e ffective life is less than one h o u r. This means it must be p roduced at the site. Ozone is also highly corrosive. Materials compatibility must be considere d in any system that uses ozone.) — Recycle and reuse. Even if you have done everything possible to improve water quality, you can still save water by finding other uses for bleed-off water. You may also discover additional s o u rces of make-up water such as single-pass cooling systems used elsewhere in the facility. Some high-quality municipal t reated wastewater may also be acceptable provided the tower is operated at somewhat conserva- tive concentration ratios. — Explore other options. Some vendors claim that magnets and e l e c t rostatic field generators dis- lodge mineral deposits and scale without the use of chemicals. Be a w a re that these claims are unsubstantiated. Investigate these systems thoroughly before a possible purc h a s e . 62 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS 65 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR COOLING AND HEATING HOW MUCH WATER CAN BE SAV E D ? The graph in Figure 5-3 shows the relationship between the concentration ratio (CR) and the amount of water consumed by a cooling tower. To determine the percentage of cooling tower water consumption that can be conserved by increasing the concentration ratio, use the following e q u a t i o n : P e rcent conserved = CR2 - CR1 x 100% CR1 (CR2 -1) w h e re: CR1 = concentration ratio before increasing cycles, and CR2 = concentration ratios after increasing cycles. EXAMPLE 1: I n c reasing the concentration ratio from 2 to 4 results in a water savings of 33%. Concentration Ratio F i g u re 5-3: Cooling Tower Water Consumption vs. Concentration Ratio S o u rces: “Uses of Water and Water Conservation Opportunities for Cooling Towers” by J. Douglas Kobrick, P.E. and Mark D. Wilson, Black & Veatch; City of San Jose Environmental Services Department S ingle pass (also known as“ o n c e - t h rough”) cooling sys-tems present another signifi- cant opportunity for conservation. In these systems, water is chan- neled through a piece of equipment and then disposed down the drain. The types of equipment that typi- cally utilize single-pass cooling include: CAT scanners, degre a s e r s , rectifiers, hydraulic presses, x-ray p rocessors, condensers, air condi- tioners, air compressors, welding machines, vacuum pumps and vis- cosity baths. Here are some ideas on how to save water in single-pass systems: — Modify equipment to operate with a closed-loop cooling system that re c i rculates the water instead of dumping it. For small equipment, it may be possible to tap into an existing re c i rculating chilled water loop. — Replace water-cooled equipment such as compressors and vacuum pumps with air-cooled models. A i r-cooled ice makers, ice cream and frozen yogurt machines are available, as is other equipment that uses water-cooled condenser units. — If the above options are not viable, try to find another use for the single-pass effluent, in boiler make-up supply or land- scape irrigation, for example. Also look for other appropriate s o u rces of water to feed single- pass cooling, such as reverse osmosis reject water. E vaporative coolers, alsoknow as “swamp coolers” or“desert coolers,” work on the same principle as cooling towers. Air is cooled and humidified as it passes through porous pads that a re kept moist by water dripped on their upper edges. Unevaporated water trickles down through the pads and collects in a pan for either d i s c h a rge or re c i rculation. Since the cooling relies on evaporation, these coolers work best in arid climates such as New Mexico’s. When water evaporates it leaves behind scale and mineral deposits on the pads. This reduces the vol- ume of air flowing through the pads and compromises the perfor- mance of the cooler. In areas where water is very hard and/or the air is d u s t y, pads may become clogged very quickly. B l e e d - o ff water serves to dilute the mineral concentration of pan water and reduces scale and dirt build-up on the pads. There are two types of b l e e d - o ff systems. The once- t h rough or pumpless type is sim- pler and less expensive than the re c i rculating or pump type, but it consumes more water and re q u i re s constant drainage. (Wilson, May 1996, Appendix B, p.1) To reduce water used by evapora- tive coolers: — Keep a tight rein on the amount of bleed-off water. For most small coolers, bleed-off volume should be less than a few gallons per hour for each 1,000 cubic feet per minute of air flow ( Wilson, Appendix B, p.2). In addition to saving water, lower b l e e d - o ff rates also lead to g reater thermal eff i c i e n c y. — Avoid single-pass or pumpless coolers. Recirculation saves water and increases the thermal e ff i c i e n c y. But if re c i rculation is not an option, consider using the bleed-off water for irrigation or other uses. — Replace worn or torn pads. — Inspect the re c i rculation pump and reservoir level controls periodically during the warm months when the system is running. 66 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS SI N G L E - PASS CO O L I N G SY S T E M S SM A L L EVA P O R AT I V E CO O L E R S 67 WATER CONSERVATION GUIDELINES FOR COOLING AND HEATING F i g u re 5-4: Typical Evaporative Cooler Water tubing Motor Water trough Pad frame Blower wheel Water pan Water pump Float valve Illustration courtesy of Champion Coolers W ater plays an integral ro l ein many New Mexicomanufacturing pro c e s s e s f rom metal plating and finishing to semiconductor chip fabrication. The above-mentioned facilities, with their heavy reliance on rinsing and reaction baths, are among the state’s l a rgest industrial water users. But many are also among New Mexico’s most innovative and dedicated water conservationists; a few have even pioneered water-saving tech- niques or equipment that have been adopted by their other facilities out- side New Mexico. (See, for example, the case studies in Section 7 on Intel and Tu s c a ro r a . ) Every industry’s production line has its own unique elements and re q u i rements. In this section, sever- al specific industries are addre s s e d . In addition, virtually every plant manager can obtain water savings by considering and adapting these m o re general guidelines: — Review each process to deter- mine if less water can be used and if the most recent water- saving technology is being employed. Pay particular atten- tion to the rinsing steps; in many cases operators use an excessive amount of water, far m o re than what is re q u i red to e n s u re product quality. — Go beyond the standard information provided by equip- ment manufacturers to investi- gate the real need for water use. — Install pre s s u re reducers if high water pre s s u re is not re q u i re d . — Use reverse osmosis and de-ionized water only where it is essential. — Make sure all controls, sensors, and valves are checked fre - quently and re p a i red pro m p t l y. — Investigate counter- c u r rent rinsing, spray systems, flow reduction devices, solenoid or timer shut-off valves, pH or con- ductivity probes, and batch pro - cessing for water-saving oppor- t u n i t i e s . 70 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS T h e re are several types of rinse baths used to remove contaminants f rom the surface of a product or component. Static rinse baths wash away contaminants when the workpiece or product is dipped in to it. The bath must be periodically drained and replenished with fre s h w a t e r. Constant overflow rinse baths, also known as “running rinses,” wash away contaminants with a continu- ous flow of water to the tank. The flow rate varies widely and is often not metered. The overflow of spent water is typically sent down the d r a i n . The most water- e fficient rinsing system uses a counter- c u r rent or counter flow arrangement, in which the rinse water pro g re s s e s f rom tank to tank in a dire c t i o n opposite to the processing ord e r. In this way the cleanest water is used for the final product rinse. It is then used again to rinse the product in earlier rinse steps where water quality is not as critical. To conserve rinse water, focus on: 1. controlling water flow 2. increasing the efficiency of the rinse process 3. reclaiming spent water. Water Flow — Avoid excessive dilution. Determine the maximum allow- able contaminant concentrations in the rinse tanks. Install flow meters or manually operated flow control valves instead of orifice plates for flow contro l . This will allow for greater oper- ating flexibility, including the ability to respond to changes in supply pre s s u re. These devices a re inexpensive and simple to operate, but they do re q u i re operator attentiveness. — Use measured amounts of water rather than continuous streams. — For automatic flow control, use conductivity or total dissolved solid (TDS) meters to monitor rinse water concentration and to trigger electrically operated flow c o n t rol valves. Be aware that this option will not work well if t h e re are rapid variations in make-up water TDS due to changes in water supplier s o u rc e s . — Reduce the rate of “trickle flows” which run continuously even when processing is not taking place. — If possible, install timers or shut- o ff valves to turn off water flow whenever a process is shut down or temporarily taken out of service. 71 WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES FOR SPECIFIC PROCESSES AND INDUSTRIES RINSING AND CLEANING Figure 6-1 Three-stage countercurrent rinse Work Flow Rinsewater In Rinsewater Out Third Rinse Tank Second Rinse Tank First Rinse Tank Rinsing Eff i c i e n c y — Install spray rinse systems d i rectly above the process baths w h e re possible. Water savings of up to 60 percent (compared with immersion tank water use) may be possible (Arizona Municipal Water Users Association, 1997, p. 73). Spray rinsing is most e ffective for parts that are flat, have small holes, or are cup shaped. You may be able to adjust the flow rate so it equals the evaporation rates from the p rocess bath. — Use sequential rinsing, in which spent water from one process is used as rinse water for another compatible process. For instance, rinse from an acid bath might be used for rinsing in a caustic bath rinse. — For multi-tank rinsing, consider making the first tank a static rather than continuous rinse. This conserves water because a high percentage of the contami- nants is discharged into the first rinse tank, which is allowed to become more concentrated than the rinses that follow. Less water is used to periodically dump and refill the tank than is used for continuous overflow rinses. — Use counterflow rinsing. Converting from one rinse tank to two counterflow tanks has been reported to reduce water consumption by over 50 per cent, in some cases. Adding a t h i rd tank can save another 10 p e rcent. (ibid, p. 73). The disad- vantage of this system is that it may re q u i re additional floor space as well as more tanks and p i p i n g . — Eliminate plenum flushes where not re q u i re d . — Instead of cleaning one item at a time, consider batch processing. P rocessing several workpieces at the same time makes more e fficient use of process water, saves time, and increases p ro d u c t i v i t y. — Schedule wet process pro d u c - tion so rinses are operated fewer hours during the day. — Reduce rinse water in solvent d e g reasing by installing tamper- p roof conductivity meters to c o n t rol make-up water to rinse t a n k s . Reclamation and Other Ideas — Reclaim spent rinse water; treat it if necessary. Reuse rinse water for lower-grade process steps or for other facility applications such as cooling tower make-up water (See Section 7 for the case studies on Intel and Sandia National Laboratories, for exam- ple). Water can be selectively separated from solids using a number of membrane technolo- gies including reverse osmosis, e l e c t rodialysis, ultrafiltration, and micro f i l t r a t i o n . — Improve the quality of waste- water and reap the economic benefits of recovering chro m i - um, copper, silver, and other valuable materials. — If there is a circulating de-ion- ized water loop in the facility, consider returning the final portion of rinse water to it. The water that flows at the end of a rinsing sequence usually becomes only slightly contami- nated, and may even be of bet- ter quality than the facility’s incoming water supply (City of San Jose, Computer and E l e c t ronics, p. 5). Direct reject de-ionized water to other uses. — Recover, treat, and reuse filter backwash water. Recycle water in test tanks. Recycle water used in head-polishing machinery. — Install ultrasonic cleaning equipment for reusable contain- ers and degre a s i n g . — Instead of caustic jet spray rins- es, use a burn-out oven for cleaning used engine parts. Then bombard the cleaned parts with beads and shot to remove residue. This also reduces the need for toxic waste disposal (State of California, October 1994, p. 36). — Recycle “clean-in-place” rinse w a t e r. Use it for the next caustic w a s h . 72 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS X-Ray and Photo Processing Film processing, including x-ray development in hospitals and other medical facilities, is commonly done with automatic machines. In general, these processors utilize a series of tanks and dryers to develop, stop, fix, h a rden, wash, bleach, and dry the film. Water is used principally in the rinse or wash cycle, and, in older machines, this water can run continu- o u s l y. New machines are more water e fficient (and reduce the amount of silver in wastewater as well). To save water: — Install an inexpensive flow-rate meter in the supply line to e n s u re that the correct flow of rinse water is being received by each pro c e s s o r. — Install a control valve in the piping to each unit. Adjust water flow to the minimum rate possible. Many hospital X-ray p rocessors use a higher flow rate than necessary to ensure acceptable quality. The average hospital unit re q u i res about 2.0 gallons per meter (gpm) or less, but in practice the actual flow rate is typically greater than 3 or 4 gpm. (Arizona Municipal Water Users Association, 1997, p. 76). Post a list of minimum acceptable flow rates near each m a c h i n e . — Install a pre s s u re - reducing device on any equipment that does not re q u i re high pre s s u re . — If the processor utilizes a sole- noid valve that shuts off rinse and cooling water flows when the unit is not in use, make sure the valve is working pro p e r l y. It is not uncommon for processor valves to operate incorre c t l y, allowing continuous water flows. Some machines without solenoid controls can be re t ro f i t t e d . — Consider recycling rinse bath e ffluent as make-up for the developer/fixer solution. — Replace old equipment with w a t e r- e fficient models. Look for machines equipped with a squeegee to remove excess chemicals from the film as it travels from one tank to the next. Depending on the system, a squeegee can reduce the amount of chemicals carried between tanks by up to 95 p e rcent (ibid, p. 76). The lower the amount of chemicals carried over to the wash cycle, the less wash water is re q u i re d . Miscellaneous Medical Facility Processes Below are several more ways to save water in medical facilities. — Do not rely on running a s t ream of water through an aspirator to create a vacuum. — Draw on the hospital’s re c i rc u - lating systems for cooling in place of single-pass cooling for laboratory instru m e n t s . — In water-ring vacuum pumps, check the flow rate of the water ring seal and its control. Install a flow restrictor or replace with an oil-ring vacuum pump (See the Presbyterian Healthcare Services case study, pg.95). — Use softened water only where it is needed. Ensure that the flow rates and cycle times are p roperly set during the re g e n e r- ation cycle, when water is used to flush the resin and to refill the brine tank. Monitor water quali- ty before starting the re g e n e r a - tion cycle to ensure that water will be used most eff i c i e n t l y. 75 WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES FOR SPECIFIC PROCESSES AND INDUSTRIES H e re are a few conservationideas for other kinds ofp ro c e s s e s . P a i n t i n g — Use an electrostatic process to paint metal surfaces. This will reduce air pollution and elimi- nate the need for water curtains. — Recycle water used to collect overspray paint by treating water with dissolved air flotation and a filter dewatering system to separate toxic solids. — Replace water-wall paint-spray booths with a dry filter medium to collect overspray. D y e i n g — Reuse water from light-colored applications for batch dyeing o p e r a t i o n s . — Consider separating rinse drains and recycling some rinse water as dye bath make-up. Fume Scrubbers Wet fume scrubbers use water sprays to remove pollutants fro m p roduction exhaust gases before they are released to the atmos- p h e re. Even though most scru b b e r s re c i rculate some water, losses due to evaporation and discharge can add up; flow rates between 5 and 10 gallons per minute are common. — Install flow meters to measure the water flowing into the s c rubber for make-up water. Make sure the flow does not exceed the rate specified by the m a n u f a c t u rer for proper o p e r a t i o n . — Instead of feeding fresh water into the scrubbers, explore the possibility of using lower grade, non-potable water. (Be careful not to create any cross reactions between the chemicals in the water and those in the exhaust s t re a m . ) — Explore treating and reusing the water normally discharged from the scru b b e r. Consider replacing wet scrubbers with a bag house variety (See Ponderosa Products case study, pg. 84.) Making Use of Degraded Wa t e r — Reuse reverse osmosis reject water for other uses. Depending on the reject water quality, uses may include process cooling, equipment cooling, fume s c rubbers, photo processing, washing areas not needing ultra clean water, and irrigation. NOTE: Because reverse osmosis fil- tration concentrates naturally occurring minerals into the re j e c t w a t e r, caution should be applied in selecting an application for this mineral-laden water. 76 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS OTHER PR O C E S S E S 77 SECTION 7 Section 7: Case Studies in Commercial, Institutional and Industrial Water Conservation Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) is operated for the U.S. Department of Energy by the Sandia Corporation, a Lockheed Martin C o m p a n y. SNL designs all non- nuclear components for the nation’s nuclear weapons and con- ducts a wide variety of re s e a rc h , f rom the development of solar cells and computer chips to fusion. Located in six separate sites on Kirtland Air Force Base, SNL employs more than 8,000 people working in 765 buildings encom- passing 5.4 million square feet. As if the sheer size and diversity of Sandia’s activities and funding w e ren’t daunting enough, a facili- ties manager contemplating water conservation is also hampered by the fact that few buildings are m e t e red. (At the time most were built, water was considered an unlimited re s o u rce.) There also are no meters measuring how much water SNL takes in as a whole; most of its water comes from wells owned and operated by Kirtland. Based on sewer flow, cooling tower evaporation rates, steam plant con- densate losses and other factors, D a rell Rogers, Sandia’s Water Conservation Off i c e r, estimates that Sandia used approximately 400 million gallons of water annually b e f o re any conservation measure s w e re enacted. F i g u re 7-1 shows Sandia’s estimat- ed water use by category. Even without a complete water audit, it was clear that the production of u l t r a p u re water used in the micro- e l e c t ronics facility plus the water used for cooling and steam genera- tion accounted for most of Sandia’s consumption. Since these areas lent themselves to several easily imple- mented, high-return remedies, con- servation measures were imple- mented in these areas first. Rogers says these early successes may help obtain the funding, re s o u rces and support for a more thorough audit and an institution-wide commit- ment to water conservation. Microelectronics Development Laboratory (MDL). Ultra-Pure Water Production. Sandia’s Micro e l e c t ro n i c s Development Laboratory uses ultra- p u re water to process semiconduc- tor wafers. The facility had been consuming an estimated 128 million gallons per year. In 1996, more eff i- cient, larg e r- s u r f a c e - a rea re v e r s e osmosis membranes were installed along with better valves for more p recise control of the flow of water. Amanifold was also added to the reverse osmosis pump, which con- verted it to a more efficient two- stage pump. These changes re d u c e d the lab’s water use by 30-38 million gallons a year, resulting in savings of $78,000 in water and sewer costs. M o re o v e r, because the re v e r s e osmosis system is more efficient, it re q u i res fewer hours of operation, resulting in an annual energy sav- ings of $22,000. The total cost of the p roject was $107,113; payback was less than one y e a r. 80 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS SA N D I A NAT I O N A L LA B O R ATORIES, AL B U Q U E R Q U E S A N D I A N AT I O N A L L A B O R ATO R I E S 1995 Water Use: 400 million gallons* 1998 Water Use: 324 million gallons* (19% re d u c t i o n ) 2004 Water Goal: 280 million gallons (30% re d u c t i o n ) * e s t i m a t e d Reuse and Recycle Wa s t e w a t e r. F i g u re 7-2, a schematic of water flow in the Micro e l e c t ro n i c s Development Laboratory (MDL), shows several recycling opportuni- ties. The first phase of Option 4 was completed in 1997. Sandia now pumps a portion of MDL’s pro c e s s- ing waste water to an adjacent cooling tower. The water, consid- e red too contaminated for reuse in the plant, is treated in an acid waste neutralization system prior to entering the cooling tower. This saves 8-12 million gallons of water and $20,000 per year. Options 1 and 3 are currently being investigated. Recycling spent rinse water from the wet benches of a semiconductor facility (a “fab”) and returning it for reuse to some node of the plant ultra-pure water (UPW) system offers the gre a t e s t opportunity for water savings in semiconductor manufacturing. In addition, because spent rinse waters, by most metrics, are of much higher quality than incoming municipal water, the quality of the UPW produced is enhanced by this tactic. Unfortunately, some spent rinse waters contain contaminants, typically organics, not found in municipal waters. Worse yet, cer- tain of these contaminants can degrade the performance of other components in the UPW system such as reverse osmosis mem- branes and ion exchange re s i n s . This risk perceived to be associated with rinse water recycling contin- ues to limit the widespread accep- tance of recycling at many U.S. semiconductor manufacturing sites in spite of the conservation, costs and performance advantages that could accrue. With today’s billion dollar investment in a pro d u c t i o n f a c i l i t y, even a small interruption in p roduction can cost more than a y e a r’s water savings. To minimize the recycling risk, S E M ATECH, a consortium of chip m a n u f a c t u rers, funded a project at Sandia to develop and demonstrate near real-time sensors for detecting the presence of objectionable conta- minants in the rinse waters collect- ed for recycling. These fast responding sensors allow contami- nated water to be diverted from the recycle loop before entering the UPW system, avoiding any of the upsets that so worry management and production staff. Incorporation of such technology, not yet com- pleted, could reduce the MDL’ s water consumption by 50% and allow the US semiconductor indus- try to save on the order of 30 bil- lion gallons of water per year. As a first step, engineers have sepa- rated the drainage systems of two kinds of discharge that occur dur- ing processing: (1) deionized water used in wafer rinse baths; and (2) various acids used to etch and clean the wafers in pro c e s s i n g tanks. Keeping the higher quality 81 CASE STUDIES IN COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSERVATION F i g u re 7-1 1996 Water Consumption at Sandia National Laboratories F i g u re 7-2 Water Flow Schematic at the Micro e l e c t ronics Development Laboratory Landscaping 1 % Other 6 % U l t r a - P u re Wa t e r 3 7 % Steam 7% Cooling 25% Domestic 21% recycle proposal actual ultra-pure water blowndown dis- charge to sewer domestic potable water RO Reject/ Backwash sewer sewer non-potable storage for irrigation cooling tower treatment acid waste neutralization micro- electronics development laboratory processes rinse water apart from the acids should increase the amount of water that can be recycled. MDL i s also looking into ways of re c y c l i n g the acids themselves: on-site re p ro- cessing and reuse of the acid in We t Chemistry Process benches; collec- tion and off-site re p rocessing of the waste acid; and on-site use of the waste acid to regenerate ion exchange resins. This pro j e c t , which cost $35,000 to implement, will reduce water consumption and wastewater discharge by 1-2 mil- lion gallons and save over $10,000 in operating and maintenance costs annually (thus providing full pay- back in 3.5 years). Steam Plant In continuous operation since 1949, the steam plant supplies an average of 680,000 kg/day of saturated steam for space heating and labora- tory processes. Not surprisingly, it is a big water user. Through a series of p rojects begun in 1995, engineers have reduced water consumption by 15 to 25 million gallons a year, and have eliminated 11.5 million gallons a year of discharge into the sewer system, with a cost savings a p p roaching $100,000 a year. The following water-saving measure s have also dramatically cut energ y and chemical costs: Replacement of aging dealkylizer and improvement of synthetic resin. B e f o re well or city water is converted to steam, it is pro c e s s e d t h rough a dealkylizer to lower its pH and a water softener to re m o v e minerals. Both systems now use a new resin, which, combined with higher dealkylizer eff i c i e n c y, allows for the processing of 43% more water before the resin has to be re c h a rged. Since re c h a rging re q u i re s w a t e r, the new resin cuts the amount of re c h a rge waste water by 1.2 million gallons a year. The new system also improves water quality. Leaks repaired in the condensate return lines. The steam that con- denses to water is valuable, not only because it can be used again, but also because its high tempera- t u re re q u i res less energy to be reboiled to steam. More o v e r, this water has already been treated. By repairing leaks in these lines, plant s t a ff increased the amount of con- densed steam re c a p t u red from 52% to 68%, equivalent to 12 million gallons a year of water savings. Reduced frequency of boiler b l o w d o w n . Minerals and tre a t- ment chemicals in water can pre- cipitate out as scale inside a boiler. To prevent this build-up, the con- centrated slurry is periodically removed in a process known as blowdown, which was pro d u c i n g an estimated 5.7 million gallons of wastewater a year. Greater water purity from the improved resin (see above) means that blowdowns are performed less fre q u e n t l y, saving about 2.7 million gallons a year. Recycling cooling water. The plant uses cold water to cool feedwater pump bearings, fan bearings and conductivity meters (which moni- tor water quality). By channeling this water to the boilers instead of to the sewer, the plant now saves 6 to 10 million gallons per year. Cooling To w e r s S N L has 23 evaporative cooling towers that use an estimated 78 million gallons a year. While one can’t do much about evaporation loss—that’s the whole point of the p ro c e s s — t h e re are ways to enhance the performance of the system. Ty p i c a l l y, cooling towers are p u rged of concentrated water (blowdown) fairly often so opera- tors don’t have to worry about the towers scaling up. But this practice, with its large margin for erro r, uses m o re water than is really necessary. By closely monitoring the hard n e s s of the water with conductivity meters, operators can more pre c i s e- ly determine when blowdown is needed, thereby saving 5 to 15 mil- lion gallons of water a year. The “cycling up” (increasing the amount of input water relative to blowdown water) also saves on chemical costs since fewer blow- downs means the treatment chemi- cals stay in the system longer. Another beneficial byproduct: it was d i s c o v e red that the water flow in the chillers was 25% below design speci- fications. When this is remedied, the e fficiency of the chillers is expected to improve 6%, which will save $10,000 a year in energy costs. D o m e s t i c While bathrooms, kitchens and other domestic settings re q u i re far less water than the industrial side of SNL, they still present opportunities to conserve. ATransit Time flow meter (which uses ultra sonic waves to measure water flow) is being used to obtain a baseline for each build- ing. Comparing water use with the number of people and activities in each building will help identify pos- sible sources of waste and leaks (e.g., water flowing at midnight). * More definitive water use totals will be available after meters are installed in 1999. 82 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS devised a system to remove solids and reuse the water in the scru b- bers—thus saving appro x i m a t e l y 90,000 gallons daily. Further water reduction came in 1995 from replacing one wet scru b- ber with a baghouse (which func- tions much like a series of vacuum cleaners that filters out dust and particles without using any water). This equipment change saved P o n d e rosa 15,000 to 20,000 gallons a day. The company had originally p u rchased this wet scrubber at a time when water was considere d cheap and bountiful—a situation that Ponderosa no longer felt applied to A l b u q u e rque’s water re s o u rc e s . P o n d e rosa’s efforts have resulted in a 57% drop in annual water con- sumption. Admitting that a d rought and the water re s t r i c t i o n s it could bring would cause major p roblems for the Ponderosa plant, B a rham is continually looking for further ways to reduce water con- sumption. He gets ideas by brain- storming with employees. Then he i n s p i res management to make changes, not an altogether easy task. “If you show management w h e re they can save money, then their ears perk up,” he says. A c c o rding to Barham, the facility’s long-term goal is to have zero dis- c h a rge to the city’s sewer system. 85 CASE STUDIES IN COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSERVATION COMMITTED TO RECYCLING W ater isn’t the only re s o u rce being recycled atP o n d e rosa Products. After particleboard is manufac-t u red, it is sanded. The waste from the sanded mate- rial is called sanderdust, which is recycled: it is burned as fuel in the boiler. Wood waste is also generated from the trimming of each b o a rd after it is manufactured. The trimmed material is re c y- cled and used to manufacture more boards. Since the plant’s inception in 1969, Ponderosa has used m o re than 4 billion pounds of wood waste that would have otherwise been burned or buried in landfills. N ew hotels are re q u i red toinstall water-saving toilets,faucets, and appliances. Older hotels, however, can be faced with the expensive prospect of re t rofitting in order to conserve w a t e r. Fortunately, not all water- saving programs need to be expen- sive or high tech. In fact, curbing water use can be as simple as plac- ing a printed card in each ro o m asking guests to consider using their linens and/or towels more than once. These reminders, now found in more than 200,000 hotel guest bathrooms around the world, receive serious consideration by at least 70% of guests, saving hotel owners 5% on utilities costs, a c c o rding to the Green Hotels A s s o c i a t i o n . The City of Santa Fe’s Wa t e r Conservation Ordinance re q u i re s that a water conservation sign be posted in every public re s t ro o m . The city also provides conservation signs and cards for use in hotel and motel guest ro o m s . The 86-room El Rey Inn has been using in-room water conservation c a rds for more than six years, and the staff reports that most people who stay for more than one day a g ree to forego having their sheets, and sometimes their towels, changed every day. Holly Kenney, General Manager at the El Rey Inn, has also installed 1.5 gallons-per-minute shower- heads as well as low-flow toilets. The performance of the low-flow toilets has been mixed, however. A s a result, air-assisted versions are being installed whenever a bath- room is remodeled or re p a i red. Kenney has also held a cash-prize contest for employees who submit water conservation ideas. Many of the ideas have already been imple- mented. Some, like catching rain- water from the roof for landscap- ing, may be implemented in the f u t u re. But the main purpose, a c c o rding to Kenney, was to get her s t a ff thinking about saving water— and by that criterion the contest was very successful. 86 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS EL RE Y INN, SA N TA FE E L REY INN 1995 Water Use: 1.42 million gallons 1997 Water Use: 1.19 million gallons Water Savings: 16% WAT E R C O N S E RVAT I O N A S S I S TANCE FOR H O T E L S T he Green HotelsA s s o c i a t i o n® p u b l i s h-es a newsletter for member hotels that includes w a t e r- and energ y - s a v i n g ideas. The association’s m a i l o rder catalog off e r s water conservation pro d u c t s including toilet tank fill diverters, aerators, low-flow massaging showerh e a d s , and other products. For m o re information contact: G reen Hotels A s s o c i a t i o n , P.O. Box 420212, Houston, TX 77242-0212; (713) 789-8889; fax (713) 789-9786; w w w. g re e n h o t e l s . c o m A t the corporate level,Marriott Hotels takes ener-gy and water conservation very seriously. Conservation is inte- gral to Marriott’s facilities manage- ment and its bottom line. The cor- poration strives to support its hotel engineers by providing easily accessible, up-to-date information on saving water. The 17-story A l b u q u e rque Marriott has aggressively clamped down on water waste. Employees have been trained in the importance of water conservation, and are briefed every day during every shift to spot and report potential problems. The hotel’s dedication to water conser- vation has generated impre s s i v e results in the following are a s : G r o u n d s Much of the facility’s water savings resulted from watching for leaks in the irrigation system and re p a i r i n g any faulty lines or valves immedi- a t e l y. In 1996, the staff discovered a leak that had probably gone unde- tected for years. Another leak in the 18 year-old system was detected in the summer of 1998, which cost the hotel close to 1 million gallons (and may partially explain why the facil- ity’s 1998 consumption incre a s e d f rom the previous year). Prior to 1997, the hotel re p l a c e d many of its high-water-use plants and trees with dro u g h t - t o l e r a n t varieties. Where appropriate, the s t a ff eliminated sprinkler systems and converted to drip irrigation. E fficiency timing tests were per- formed on all outdoor irrigation zones to study how long it took for the turf to become adequately satu- rated. This information was used to reduce watering times. Erik Rems, Director of Engineering for the A l b u q u e rque Marriott, is working toward metering the land- scape irrigation system separately f rom the hotel’s interior water sys- tem so that leaks can be detected and fixed more quickly. Guest Rooms In 1997, water- d i s p l a c e m e n t devices were placed in the existing toilets of all 411 rooms, saving 1 to 1.5 gallons per flush (appro x i m a t e- ly .5 million gallons annually). The following year, the hotel re p l a c e d the 2.5 gallons/minute sink aera- tors in each guest room with 1.5 gallons/minute fixtures. The new aerators are expected to save between 160,000 to 165,000 gallons a year. 87 CASE STUDIES IN COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSERVATION MARRIOTT HO T E L , AL B U Q U E R Q U E MARRIOTT HOTEL 1994 Water Use: 42.19 million gallons 1998 Water Use: 26.8 million gallons Water Savings: 36.5% MPI’s North Plant receives granu- lar potash from the West Plant via t ruck. Under-sized material is com- pacted by pressing into a cake and run through a flake bre a k e r. Compacted potash is scre e n e d again for size with the granular conveyed to the product storage w a rehouse. Wet scrubbers utilize recycled water for removing partic- ulate matter from the emission s t ream. Each of the two wet scru b- bers use 40-60 gallons of fre s h water and 70-80 gallons of re c y c l e d water per minute. Water Conservation A c c o rding to Jeff Campbell, E n v i ronmental Coord i n a t o r, all of Mississippi Potash’s personnel are a w a re of the current water situa- tion in New Mexico and are i n s t ructed to minimize water use as much as possible. All MPI plants conserve water by collecting, impounding, and recycling water. (MPI has no landscaping and uti- lizes low-flow toilets.) Table 7-3 The East Plant milling pro c e s s re q u i res 3,300 gallons per minute of w a t e r. Through collecting and re c y- cling brine water, only 1,500 gallons per minute of fresh water is used in the plant. The use of recycled brine water saves 1,800 gallons per minute. The West Plant milling pro c e s s re q u i res 1,100 gallons per minute of w a t e r. Through collecting and re c y- cling brine water, only 300 gallons per minute of fresh water is pumped to the plant from the C a p rock water well field. The use of recycled water nets a fresh water savings of 800 gallons per minute, or nearly 73%. The North Plant compaction p rocess re q u i res 200 gallons per minute. Between 40-80 gallons of f resh water and 70-80 gallons of recycled water per minute is used for dust suppression and wet s c rubber water supply. The use of recycled water saves 70-80 gallons of fresh water per minute. 90 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS MISSISSIPPI POTASH WATER USE Plant Ogallala Aquifer Plant Process Conservation Via Fresh Water (gpm) Water Demand (gpm) Recycle (gpm) East 1,500 3,300 1 , 8 0 0 West 300 1,100 8 0 0 North 200 0 8 0 Total 2,000 4,150 2 , 6 8 0 A s the center’s name sug-gests, residents of La Vi d aLlena Retire m e n t Community enjoy “the full life,” but they try to do it without wast- ing water. With 300 apartments and a 100-bed health care center situat- ed on 20 acres, La Vida Llena is one of A l b u q u e rque’s largest re t i re m e n t communities. Residents do not pay for water dire c t l y. F rom 1994 to 1998, La Vida Llena reduced water use by 34.3 million gallons of water per year, a whop- ping 83% decrease. A l a rge part of the community’s water savings has come from diligently inspecting for leaks. In 1998, the staff discovered a multitude of irrigation leaks, one cooling tower leak, several boiler leaks, and a major water seepage under a kitchen floor. For months, the kitchen staff had noticed the floor was unusually warm, but it wasn’t until the floor was dug up that the 15 gallon-a-minute hot water leak was discovered. Before it was fixed, this leak cost La Vi d a Llena thousands of gallons of water and countless dollars in wasted e n e rg y. La Vida Llena’s water conser- vation program also included changes in the following areas: G r o u n d s In the five years prior to 1999, La Vida Llena converted about 20 per- cent of its approximately 5 acres of landscaping to xeriscaping. The s t a ff replaced inefficient, oversized sprinkler heads and adjusted watering times after saturation tests revealed they had been over- watering many areas. And, instead of addressing leaks only when someone happened to notice water flowing, La Vida Llena’s gro u n d s vendor now monitors the irrigation system for leaks on a weekly basis. Cooling To w e r s La Vida Llena was losing water in its cooling towers because no one in-house had been trained to pro p- erly apply and monitor scale inhibitors. In 1997, the community h i red a contractor to manage its cooling towers more eff i c i e n t l y. A c c o rding to Jaime Beltran, D i rector of Environmental Services, the cooling tower blowdown is only about 5 to 10% of what was once discharged into the sewer. Pool and Spa Beltran had the opposite pro b l e m with the pool and spa. The pool service company was adding chemicals indiscriminately and would often have to dump half the pool water to get the chemicals into c o n t rol. When La Vida Llena can- celled its contract with that pool service company in 1997, the re t i re- ment community not only saved water but improved the pool’s water quality as well. The mainte- nance staff installed better filters 91 CASE STUDIES IN COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSERVATION LA VI D A LL E N A LIFECARE RETIREMENT CO M M U N I T Y, AL B U Q U E R Q U E L A V I D A L L E N A 1994 Water Use: 41.2 million gallons 1998 Water Use: 6.9 million gallons Water Savings: 8 3 % and a high-flow-rate pump (so that water is filtered more fre q u e n t l y ) . Most importantly, the staff tests the pool chemistry continuously, adding chemicals only when need- ed. As a result, only 100 gallons of water is lost each week to evapora- tion and backwashing, compare d to the thousands of gallons wasted p re v i o u s l y. B a t h r o o m s Even in the summer with the evap- orative coolers running, toilets and showers use the most water. Since the fall of 1997, Beltran has been installing water-saving low-flow s h o w e rheads on a regular basis. He has also changed out about 10% of the toilets from 3.5 gallon to 1.6 gal- lon models. “Some residents are reluctant to go to low flow,” he says. “The general perception is that they don’t flush as well— although our residents have been satisfied with the performance of low-flow toilets.” More o v e r, unlike conventional apartments where managers can change fixture s when a tenant vacates, La Vi d a Llena’s residents are often there for years or even decades. “They have had these toilets fore v e r, so they don’t want to change,” says Beltran. E d u c a t i o n With its own in-house TV station, La Vida Llena has an easy way to get the word out about re d u c i n g water use, and from time to time it discusses low-flow fixtures and other aspects of conservation. H o w e v e r, notes Jack Booth, Executive Dire c t o r, many of the re s- idents are very active in the A l b u q u e rque community, and m o re often than not it is the re s i- dents who bring back information on water conservation to give to La Vida Llena’s management. 92 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS S ince its establishment 90years ago, Pre s b y t e r i a nH e a l t h c a re Services has expe- rienced healthy growth. In A l b u q u e rque alone, Pre s b y t e r i a n now has 24 locations and more than 60 irrigated acres of landscap- ing. Amidst the growth, the health- c a re organization became one of the city’s largest water users. Under the direction of Lonnie Burke, water conservation coord i- n a t o r, Presbyterian has also been h o n o red as one of A l b u q u e rq u e ’ s top water conservers. In the fall of 1995, Burke began the o rganization’s water conservation p rogram by studying water bills and conducting a water audit. It was no easy task. Pre s b y t e r i a n ’ s main hospital campus on Central Avenue had grown to comprise m o re than 16 city blocks, re s u l t i n g in a complex tangle of plumbing and energy infrastru c t u re — a n d water waste. After auditing past water use, he began to install indi- vidual meters on equipment that used large volumes of water, including cooling towers, boilers, and irrigation systems. Burke used this information to determine the e fficiency of these systems and to estimate water savings and cost payback of any proposed conserva- tion projects. An unanticipated benefit of the audit was the discovery that P resbyterian had been overpaying for water services. In particular, Burke found that a number of meters at the main hospital were being charged for sewer services when they were used for irrigation o n l y, and Presbyterian was paying for two eight-inch meters when it only had one. More o v e r, the city computer was charg i n g P resbyterian for water it did not use. Facility engineers would sometimes turn off one of thre e main meters to the main hospital to make repairs. While the water use at the meters was zero, the comput- er would assume the meters were faulty and would charge the hospi- tal what typical water usage at that meter had been in the past. A c c o rding to Burke, these discover- ies saved Presbyterian $42,000 a n n u a l l y. New Irrigation System P resbyterian’s largest water- u s e reductions have come fro m changes in landscape irrigation practices. A c c o rding to Steve Tennyson, grounds maintenance s u p e r v i s o r, Presbyterian’s past emphasis, common in the city, was to get the grass as green as possible without re g a rd to water use. Tennyson and crew began paying attention to water use versus water need. They replaced ineff i c i e n t sprinkler heads with better quality models that provided a more uni- form spray. As they did so, it became apparent that the irrigation system had to be upgraded. The s t a ff also installed a master valve on the 32-acre northside campus so that water stops flowing in the irri- gation line when the system shuts o ff—thus preventing water lost to leaks. With these relatively simple e fforts, Presbyterian cut its irriga- tion consumption by 8.1 million gallons between 1994 and 1996. 95 CASE STUDIES IN COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSERVATION PRESBYTERIAN HE A LTHCARE SE RV I C E S , AL B U Q U E R Q U E PRESBYTERIAN 1994 Water Use: 145.2 million gallons 1998 Water Use: 118.3 million gallons Water Savings: 1 9 % Starting in 1997, Presbyterian began installing a computerized irrigation c o n t rol system at the main and northside campuses. The new sys- tem monitors water use for each zone, detects broken lines or missing sprinkler heads, and shuts down the p roblem zone until it is re p a i re d . Though still not complete, the new system, coupled with other conser- vation measures, brought down P resbyterian’s irrigation usage to 67.9 million gallons in 1998—a 25% d rop from the 1994 level. A c c o rd i n g to Tennyson, one year’s worth of water savings paid for the initial $31,000 cost of the system. Tennyson took advantage of train- ing programs off e red by the City of A l b u q u e rque and by the national Irrigation Association before re d u c- ing lawn areas and installing xeriscapes. The two-acre San Mateo facility now has only 1,600 square feet of turf. The majority of the landscaping consists of moderate- to low-water-use plants and native t rees on a drip irrigation system. Other Savings Additional water savings have come from these changes in P resbyterian’s facilities: — Autoclave Condensate and Cooling Water Recycling. Autoclaves use steam to sterilize s u rgical instruments, trays, and other medical equipment. Burke has already saved 0.5 million gallons annually by collecting the sterilizer steam condensate p reviously dumped down the drain and recycling it back to the boiler. Presbyterian also plans to replace at least one autoclave with a more water- e fficient version, saving 1.8 mil- lion gallons annually. Also in the works: Burke plans to reclaim the autoclave’s cooling w a t e r, which is currently discharg e d to the sewer. Feeding this water to the cooling towers instead will save 8 million gallons a year and will p rovide two-thirds of the water re q u i red by the cooling towers. — Pump Replacement. Medical pumps provide suction to remove bodily fluids, and med- ical air pumps supply purified air for breathing. Since older models are cooled and lubricat- ed with water, substantial water savings can be reaped by re p l a c - ing them with new oil-cooled versions. Indeed, at Kaseman Hospital, part of the Pre s b y t e r i a n network in A l b u q u e rque, re p l a c - ing two medical pumps in 1998 saved the hospital 2.6 million gallons annually. Burke is also planning to replace six medical vacuum pumps and four med- ical air pumps at the main hos- pital. He estimates this will save 5 million gallons annually. — Turning Off Wa t e r. Burke noticed that six older x-ray developers were left running continuously at night after u rgent care facilities had closed, wasting up to three gallons of water per minute. Burke asked technicians to turn off the water flow at night. “Sometimes it’s really simple to save water,” Burke said. — Bathroom Retrofits. By early 1999, Burke had replaced 21 high-water-use toilets with 1.6 gallon commodes in heavily used public wash- rooms. Additional low-flow toilets, faucet aerators, and low-flow showerheads will be installed. By the time the bath room re t rofit project is completed, Burke estimates savings of at least 6 million gallons a year. — Personnel Involvement. Burke s t resses that even the most c o m p rehensive conservation plan can be derailed if the main- tenance and trades staff are left in the dark. “By installing the parts wrong, or installing the w rong parts, you can make the investment in new equipment to save water useless,” he said. “If a maintenance person i n c o r rectly changes out a tank flapper on a 1.6 gpf toilet without installing the proper part, the toilet could end up consuming 3.5 gpf. That’s why the maintenance staff needs to understand that they are an important part of the p rogram, and they need the proper training for the p rogram to be successful.” —Lonnie Burke 96 A WATER CONSERVATION GUIDE FOR COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL USERS L os Alamos NationalLaboratory (LANL) occupies43 square miles of land in northern New Mexico. Owned by the U.S. Department of Energ y, L A N L has been managed by the University of California since 1943, when the Laboratory was estab- lished as part of the Manhattan P roject to create the first atomic weapons during World War II. Today the Lab conducts pro g r a m s in energ y, nuclear safeguards, bio- medical science, enviro n m e n t a l p rotection and cleanup, computa- tional science, materials science, and other basic sciences. The largest institution and the l a rgest employer in the area, LANL has approximately 6,800 University of California employees plus a p p roximately 2,800 contract per- sonnel. Its annual budget is a p p roximately $1.2 billion. As shown in Figure 7-3, water use at the Lab declined somewhat in 1993 and 1995. But overall, the demand for water has been incre a s- ing in recent years. This is due pri- marily to increased demand for cooling as new projects come on line. Electricity-intensive pro g r a m s , such as the accelerator facility (which runs high-energy physics experiments) generate tre m e n d o u s amounts of heat, which must be removed. Hence, the greater the electricity usage, the greater the demand for cooling and cooling tower water. Figure 7-4 shows the b reakdown of water use. Clearly, cooling tower use overshadows all other uses, consuming 58% of the 488.1 million-gallon water budget in 1997. 97 CASE STUDIES IN COMMERCIAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER CONSERVATION LOS ALAMOS NAT I O N A L LA B O R ATO RY, LOS AL A M O S L A N L 1994 Water Use: 524.8 million gallons 1997 Water Use: 488.25 million gallons Water Savings: 7 % 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 F i g u re 7-3: Water Use at Los Alamos National Laboratory